THE GAYATRI MANTRA:THE MANTRA OF MANTRA
The gayatri mantra is the most popular Vedic hymn. It is tenth mantra in the 62nd sutra of the third mandal in Rig Veda. Gayatri Chhand is a poetic metre consisting of 24 syllables (letters), three lines of eight syllables each. Any hymn composed in this meter is called gayatri. The meter though originally contained in Rig-Veda is also found in other Vedas.(cf. Yajurveda-22/9, 30/2,36/3;Samveda 1462). The Gayatri Mantra has four feet: The first foot consists of the earth, sky and Heaven, the second foot, the Rig Veda, the Yajur Veda and the Sama Veda and the third foot, prana, apana and vyana. The fourth foot consists of the Sun, the solar being. The Gayatri Mantra was first revealed to the Rishi Vishwamitra who was the very embodiment of all tapas and cosmo-ascetic forces and his mantras are endowed withthe power of light, energy,life, and transformation.
Most important and sacred duty of man is to remember God for all the bounties he has bestowed on all beings. Vedic prayers are hymns and are known as mantras. Apart from being a prayer-mantra the Gayatri Mantra is a beej mantra or seed syllable, derived from ancient primeval sounds.
All Vedic prayers have emerged from Om, which is synonymous with Brahma, and have ‘Om’ as prefix. ‘‘Om is a primeval sound. Exhaustive exposition of this mystic word has been given in the Mandukya Upanishad. ‘‘The word Om is this, that was in the past and all that would be in future. that which is beyond all this is also AUM’’. Om represents all physical and astral bodies, both manifested and unmanifested, from the external-most physical to the internal-most spiritual on four cosmic planes’’.
The mantra ,originally conceived is the worship of lord hari, of aditya or the sun and also pure nirguna worship of brahma, the all-creating principle. Japa or chanting of this mantra with concentration and understanding, bestows inexplicable inner peace, calm of mind and solace from triple affliction.It destroys the birth and death cycle and all the sins. Japa of this Mantra has the potential to unite the soul with the Supreme Being. it has miraculous powers which can infuse us with courage and strength to whether any storm and brave any adversity in life.
Lord krishna says in the bhagavad gita, ‘‘amongst the Mantras I am Gayatri’’. As Savitri or Sun Mantra, it is addressed to the divine power in the sun. The svetasvatara upanishad says, ‘‘the one affluent divinity is hidden in all beings. He is all- pervading and is the inner-self of all creatures. He presides over all actions and all beings reside in him. He is the inner-witness. He endows all with consciousness and He is Nirguna or free from the three Gunas’’.
However, the Rig Veda has defined this Mantra from a different angle. ‘‘The illumined sages like surayah constantly see that infinite all-pervading supreme reality vishnu without any obstruction as though their vast intuitive eye or vision was spread over the spiritual sky’’.
Gayatri is a spiritual Power which protects one who chants it, and blesses him with brilliant light of the highest spiritual illumination. Japa of the gayatri mantra ushers in the realisation of the divinity of the self.
Meaning of Gayatri
The word gayatri is drived from gaya, that which is sung, given in praise, and trayate that which preserves/protects/ gives deliverance/grants liberation. The word gaya also stands for vital energies. Thus, gayatri connotes a prayer of praise that awakens the vital energies in man and grants liberation. The mantra is said to have been revealed to sage Vishwamitra. The Vedic name of this Mantra is Savitri, as the hymn is addressed to Savitur (the sun) and that the word gayatri is nowhere mentioned in the body of the mantra.
Savitur stands for bright, luminous, sun like illumining inner power that leads to self-realization. Thus, through Savitur the prayer is addressed to the Light of lights which resides in the inner most sheath of golden hue (hiranmaye pare ko`se virajam brahma nishkalam, tachubhram jyotisam jyotih -tad yadatma- vido viduh - Mundak-II-2-9).
Three Aspects
The mantra has three aspects: praise, meditation, and prayer. The mantra hails the bestower of happiness, knowledge and light. It contemplates upon the glory of the lord who is the remover of darkness, of ignorance, pains, and of sorrows. It finally prays to the lord of light, the most adorable One,to shine forth its resplendent light and stimulate our intellect, illuminate our inner self and dispel our ignorance.
The first line of the Gayatri Mantra (Aum Bhur Bhuvah Swah) is an invocation.
AUM , the Supreme name of God.
BHUR BHUVAH SWAH. The three words collectively are known as the "Mahavyahriti". They express the nature of God, and highlight His inherent qualities.
Word to Word Meaning
The word to word meaning of the Gayatri Mantra is as follows: Tat=That;
Savitur=Bright, effulgent,luminous like sun;
Varenyam=The choicest, the most adorable One, worthy to be worshipped and sought, the most venerable Being;
Bhargo= Destroyer of sins and afflictions, or gloried radiance, effulgence, splendour (that Light which bestows and sharpens intelligence);
Devasya= Of the shining divinity ;
Dheemahi=Meditate upon,on Whom we fix our whole attention;
Dheeyo=Intellect, intuition, power of inseeing,understanding of reality ;
Yo=He who,or the one who;
Na=Our, of us;
Prachodayat =May inspire, stimulate, sharpen, energise, direct, guide, reveal, unfold His Divine and Glorious Light.
Thus the literal meaning of the Mantra is: " We meditate upon (dheemahi) the splendour or the glory (bhargo) of the most adorable or acceptable One (varenyam) Supreme-Divine- Being (devasya) from which Savitur (the centre of light) is born, Who (yo) may stimulate or sharpen (prachdayat) our (na) intellect or illumine our inner self (dheeyo)"
A basic enunciation of the mantra can be given as under:
Oh God, the Lord Protector,the Self-emanating Effulgence, the basis of all life, Who is self-existent Light of Light, Whose contact frees the soul from all sorrows and afflictions, Whose power all-creating pervades and sustains all beings and things, Who is the Energizer-Supreme of the whole Universe, the Giver of life and happiness, Who is worthy of acceptance and worship, the most excellent Sovereign Divine Being , Who is Pure and the Purifier of all, let us adore and embrace that very God,so that He may direct our mental faculties in the right direction and guide us out of the mazes of the world into the tranquility and peace of God Himself, the source-supreme of all Existence, Knowledge, and Bliss.
The Four Parts of the Gayatri Mantra
Aum Bhur Bhuvah Swah
AUM
The Supreme name of God. AUM is the naad Brahman (primeval sound) emanating from the Creator Supreme at the time of creation.
BHUR BHUVAH SWAH
These three words Bhur, Bhuvah Suvah collectively are known as the "Mahavyahriti". They express the nature of God, and demonstrate his inherent qualities.
They represent the earth (matter), atmosphere and the space as symbols of gross, subtle and casual or sat, chit, annanda (truth, beauty bliss ). In the context of human body, from feet to the navel center is bhur (the earth), from navel to throat centre is bhuva (the atmosphere), and from above the throat to mind (braham randhra) is svaha (the space).
Enveloped by aakaas (the space),Rishis have envisioned seven realms (lokas) of existence viz:
(1) bhu=earth, the physical realm, the realm of being or food (matter);
(2 )bhuvah=atmosphere, the vital plane, the realm of becoming or prana (breath);
(3) suvah= space or heaven, the mental plane, the realm of light or illumination;
(4) maha=cosmic mind, the realm of dharma;
(5) janah=bliss, the realm of creation and creativity;
(6) tapah=force or penance, the realm of consciousness;and (7) satyam=truth, the realm of absolute reality.
1. BHUR
The word Bhur implies God is self-existent and independent of all. He is eternal and unchanging. He is without beginning and without end, the word Bhur can also mean the Earth as mother, on which we are born and who sustains all.
Bhur also means God is the provider and protector of all, by His divine will we all are blessed with all means to maintain us through our lives.
Bhur also signifies Prana, or life (literally, breath).It implies God is the life giver. He is the One Who maintains us throughout our lives. God alone has the power to take away our life, when He so chooses. He is the only permanent enduring entity, all others are subject to His Will.
2. BHUVAH
Bhuvah describes the absolute Consciousness of God, the Power all-controlling That govern the Universe.
Also, the word Bhuvah denotes God's greatness - greater than the sky and space, indeed everything in the celestial and temporal world. God is boundless and unlimited.
Bhuvah also points to God's role as the remover of all pain and sufferings (Apaana), what man is heir to and what surrounds him. We can be freed from that pain and hardship by God Who Himself is devoid of any pain. It is our own ignorance that makes us susceptible to the effects of Maya, or illusion, which is the root cause of all affliction and pain. Only true devotion to God frees us from the clutches of Maya, and thus rids us of all
pain and sorrow.
3. SWAH
The word Swah indicates God is omnipresent and pervades the entire Universe.Without Form Himself, He is able to manifest Himself in in the entire creation.He sustains the Universe created by Him, and thus ensures its smooth and proper running and functioning.
Also, Swah symbolizes God's bliss.He is above all pain, suffering and troubles. While happiness as experienced by humans is temporary and a transient state of mental satisfaction, which soon dissolves back into the mire of worldly afflictions, God alone experiences true bliss, permanent and unaffected by worldly woes. True happiness falls to the lot of those who establish oneness with that Supreme Divinity.
TAT SAVITUR VARENYAM
4. TAT
Literally, this word(TAT) means"that". Sri Krishna uses it to imply the selfless nature of Yajna or charity being used as r worship, in the form of action, implying that all action should be preformed without regard to its fruits, but simply out of devotion and sense of duty, or Dharma.
Tat then is used here in the Mantra to indicate that the praise being offered to God in the prayer is purely directed towards Him, without any thought of personal gain from that praise.
5. SA-VI-TUR
Savita, from which Savitur is derived, is another name of God, this being the reason that the Gayatri Mantra is often known as the Savitri Mantra. The implication of Savita is of God's status as the fountain, the source of all things. It is through His Divine Grace that the Universe exists.So this word sums up the Mahavyahriti, by describing God's ability to create the Universe and sustain it, as well as, at the right time, bring about its dissolution.
Savita is also indicative of God's gift to mankind in the form of power, or shakti, of savita which acts as an impetus in humans to do something or to constantly search and strive for something to do, what is commonly called the "creative urge" in man.
It is through this shakti that mankind has created art, and literature, and also made scientific advances .
Savita also gives creatures the ability of procreation. Hence, Savita can be thought of as denoting Father (or Mother) also.
Finally, it is the discerning power of Savita that enables mankind to distinguish right from wrong, and virtue from vice. Thus, Savita imparts to us a certain self-guiding ability to uplift ourselves and help ourselves to be our highest selves.
6. VA-RE-NY-AM
Varenyam signifies our acceptance of God as the Highest reality, and it is to Him that we dedicate our efforts rather than to material worldly pursuits.
Varenyam can also be interpreted to mean as the one
who is the most eligible or fit to be our Leader and our Guide. We surrender ourselves to Him out of sheer devotion regardless of anything else. We place no conditions on this acceptance.
BHARGO DEVASYA DHIMAHI
These three words are a further description of the attributes and qualities of God. They indicate His functional and instrumental qualities, and through those qualities, His relationship to us.
7. BHAR-GO
Bhargo connotes the light (devasya) of the divine being, dheemahi on whom we should meditate as the available form of light onto light of suns, to discover the formless Creator (God).
Bhargo also refers to That Glorious Light embodied in God's love and power. It signifies His complete purity and by virtue of His power to purify, and to destroy all sins and afflictions. By realizing His Divine Form and experience of unity and oneness with Him, we can cleanse ourselves of all stains of sin and be made pure by His Grace. This way we can regain our lost divinity, our soul’s lost radiance and luster. By removing the veil of Maya, we can cleanse our soul, and realize our true Divine self.
8. DE-VAS-YA
The word Deva, from which this word is derived, means "quality" or "attribute", and can denote another word for "Guna". Thus, the various forms of God are given this name, as each of those forms points to a specific quality and function (for example, Brahma has the quality of Creation, Shiva the quality of dissolution, Kamadeva has the quality of carnal love, etc.). Deva is thus anyone who is considered to possess a special quality or guna.
Deva can also be taken as describing the fundamental unity of God, describing in one word all the functions, roles and different attributes of God, and thus symbolizing his absolutely essential nature ,that is, without God, nothing can exist. He is all-creating Power.
9. DHI-MA-HI
Means to meditate and fix our mind on God. Meditation on God implies that we concentrate, and direct our mental energies towards the cherished object of all human quest, that is,
communion with God.
DHI-YO-NA-PRA-CHO-DA-YAT
Prayer is primarily aimed at:
praising and glorifying God;
thanksgiving to God;
asking forgiveness from God;
or asking a boon from God.
Having offered praise to God on His greatness, thanking Him for His generosity in Creation and maintaining all the created forms and asking forgiveness for our impurity and sins, which we have realized can and must be cleansed through our communion with God, we now proceed to beseech His guidance to show us the way. Since our soul is the Light of Life within us, of course inherently pure, being itself Divine in nature, through these four words we ask God to help us to refine and sharpen our intellect, and guide it towards what is right.
10. DHI
Sanskrit word stands for “intellect”. It is by use of this intellect that we are able to cultivate all other qualities (power, wealth, success in life, physical fitness, personal and collective wellbeing etc. Thus, intellect is the key to all else in life. We ask God to invest us with the highest intellect, and show us the way to use that intellect in the best possible manner both for personal and collective wellbeing and prosperity.
Material prosperity has little meaning for the person who is truly devoted to God. Pain and suffering can touch him not, since he is imbued with God’s own Divine Bliss. Thus, ones intellect must remain focussed on communing with and serving God.
11. YO
Means “Who” or “That”.
Yo points to the fact that we direct these prayers, but to God alone. Only God is worthy of the highest adoration andworship. God alone is perfect and free from all taints. It is That all-loving God, the Light all-pervading, to Whom we offer these prayers.
12. NAH
Means “Ours”.
Nah signifies the selflessness of the request, that is, we offer this prayer not simply for ourselves, but for the whole mankind. We wish for the wellbeing of the whole human family, true to the Hindu ideal of “Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam” - “The whole world is one big family”. Thus, our prayer embraces not only ourselves, but one and all inhabiting the universe.
13.Pra-cho-dayat
The word Prachodayat rounds off the whole mantra. Here we invoke God for His Guidance, and Inspiration. We beseech Him to show us His Divine and Glorious Light (cf. BHARGO).We ask Him to remove the darkness of Maya from our paths ,to let us see the way .We crave that He guide us through the mazes of this world, to the haven of tranquility and peace, where dwells God Himself, the root of all Happiness, and the source of true Bliss.
Significance of the mantra
The Gayatri Mantra invokes the Sun, which in turn invokes the Self, the Atman, the Light of Life within. The Atman is the illuminator of reason, intelligence, perceptions, emotions, thoughts and purposes, just as the Sun is the illuminator of the entire world.
The Gayatri Mantra is an appeal by the seeker to the divine Sun inhering within everyone’s being to emerge out of the cloud of sensate desires and shine forth its resplendent light. The greatness of the Gayatri Mantra lies in its power of prayer and mantric power. It offers a guide to the unfoldment of the spiritual potentialities as well as man’s ultimate transformation.
The Gayatri mantra occupies a hallowed place in ancient Indian culture. Its importance is quite evident in branches like Yoga, Vedanta, Ayurveda and Vedic Astrology. In Yoga, it helps awaken the Kundalini force. In Vedanta, it grants the light of Self-knowledge and knowledge of the solar Self. In Ayurveda, it enlivens the power of the cosmic prana whose source is the sun. In Jyotir Vigian (Vedic astrology), it provides knowledge of the movements of all the heavenly bodies ruled by the sun.
Thus the Gayatri Mantra ,the mother of all the mantras, is a boon to the sincere seeker and it confers upon him the Light of the Infinite, the Bliss of the Eternal and the Life Divine of the Immortals.
Friday, January 23, 2009
Monday, January 12, 2009
THE SUFI MYSTICISM: THE PATH OF ILLUMINATION AND ECSTASY
THE SUFI MYSTICISM: THE PATH OF ILLUMINATION AND ECSTASY
Sufism, the religious philosophy of Islam, is described in the oldest extant definition as 'the apprehension of divine realities,' and Mohammedan mystics are fond of calling themselves Ahl al-Haqq, 'the followers of the Real.' {Al-Haqq is the term generally used by Sufis when they refer to God.}
It may be said, truly enough, that all mystical experiences ultimately meet in a single point; but that point assumes widely different aspects according to the mystic's religion, race, and temperament, while the converging lines of approach admit of almost infinite variety. Though all the great types of mysticism have something in common, each is marked by peculiar characteristics resulting from the circumstances in which it arose and flourished. Just as the Christian type cannot be understood without reference to Christianity, so the Mohammedan type must be viewed in connexion with the outward and inward development of Islam.
The word 'mystic,' which has passed from Greek religion into European literature, is represented in Arabic, Persian, and Turkish, the three chief languages of Islam, by 'Sufi.' The terms, however, are not precisely synonymous, for 'Sufi' has a specific religious connotation, and is restricted by usage to those mystics who profess the Mohammedan faith. And the Arabic word, in course of time it appropriated the high significance of the Greek--lips sealed by holy mysteries, eyes closed in visionary rapture. Most Sufis have derived it from an Arabic root which conveys the notion of 'purity'; this would make 'Sufi' mean 'one who is pure in heart' or 'one of the elect.'
The earliest Sufis were, in fact, ascetics and quietists rather than mystics. An overwhelming consciousness of sin, combined with a dread of Judgment Day and the torments of Hell fire, so vividly painted in the Koran, drove them to seek salvation in flight from the world. On the other hand, the Koran warned them that salvation depended entirely on the inscrutable will of Allah, who guides aright the good and leads astray the wicked. Their fate was inscribed on the eternal tables of His providence, nothing could alter it. Only this was sure, that if they were destined to be saved by fasting and praying and pious works--then they would be saved. Such a belief ends naturally in quietism, complete and unquestioning submission to the divine will, an attitude characteristic of Sufism in its oldest form.
So far, there was no great difference between the Sufi and the orthodox Mohammedan, except that the Sufis attached extraordinary importance to certain Koranic doctrines, and developed them at the expense of others which many Moslems might consider equally essential. It must also be allowed that the ascetic movement among Sufi Mystics was inspired by Christian ideals, and contrasted sharply with the active and life-affirming spirit of Islam. In a famous sentence the Prophet denounced monkish austerities and bade his people devote themselves to the holy war against unbelievers; and he gave, as is well known, the most convincing testimony in favour of marriage. Although his condemnation of celibacy did not remain without effect, the conquest of Persia, Syria, and Egypt by his successors brought the Moslems into contact with ideas which profoundly modified their outlook on life and religion. Hence arose the Murjites, who set faith above works and emphasised the divine love and goodness; the Qadarites who affirmed, and the Jabarites who denied, that men are responsible for their actions; the Mu‘tazilites, who built a theology on the basis of reason, rejecting the qualities of Allah as incompatible with His unity, and predestinarianism as contrary to His justice; and finally the Ash‘arites, the scholastic theologians of Islam, who formulated the rigid metaphysical and doctrinal system that underlies the creed of orthodox Mohammedans at the present time. All these speculations, influenced as they were by Greek theology and philosophy, reacted powerfully upon Sufism. Early in the third century of the Hegira--the ninth after Christ--we find manifest signs of the new leaven stirring within it. Not that Sufis ceased to mortify the flesh and take pride in their poverty, but they now began to regard asceticism as only the first stage of a long journey, the preliminary training for a larger spiritual life than the mere ascetic is able to conceive. The nature of the change may be illustrated by quoting a few sentences which have come down to us from the mystics of this period.
"Love is not to be learned from men: it is one of God's gifts and comes of His grace." "None refrains from the lusts of this world save him in whose heart there is a light that keeps him always busied with the next world." "When the gnostic's spiritual eye is opened, his bodily eye is shut: he sees nothing but God." "If gnosis were to take visible shape all who looked thereon would die at the sight of its beauty and loveliness and goodness and grace, and every brightness would become dark beside the splendour thereof."
These ideas--Light, Knowledge, and Love--form, as it were, the keynotes of the new Sufism, rest upon a pantheistic faith which deposed the One transcendent God of Islam and worshipped in His stead One Real Being who dwells and works everywhere, and whose throne is not less, but more, in the human heart than in the heaven of heavens. Before going further, it will be convenient to answer a question which the reader may have asked himself--Whence did the Moslems of the ninth century derive this doctrine?
Modern research has proved that the origin of Sufism cannot be traced back to a single definite cause, and has thereby discredited the sweeping generalisations which represent it, for instance, as a reaction of the Aryan mind against a conquering Semitic religion, and as the product, essentially, of Indian or Persian thought.
If Sufism was nothing but a revolt of the Aryan spirit, how are we to explain the undoubted fact that some of the leading pioneers of Mohammedan mysticism were natives of Syria and Egypt, and Arabs by race? Similarly, the advocates of a Buddhistic or Vedantic origin forget that the main current of Indian influence upon Islamic civilisation belongs to a later epoch, whereas Moslem theology, philosophy, and science put forth their first luxuriant shoots on a soil that was saturated with Hellenistic culture. The truth is that Sufism is a complex thing, and therefore no simple answer can be given to the question how it originated. The various movements and forces moulded Sufism, and determined what direction it should take in the early stages of its growth and the most important were external, i.e. non-Islamic, influences.
CHRISTIANITY
It is obvious that the ascetic and quietistic tendencies were in harmony with Christian theory and drew nourishment therefrom. Many Gospel texts and apocryphal sayings of Jesus are cited in the oldest Sufi biographies, and the Christian anchorite (rahib) often appears in the rôle of a teacher giving instruction and advice to wandering Moslem ascetics.
We have seen that the woollen dress, from which the name 'Sufi' is derived, is of Christian origin: vows of silence, litanies (dhikr), and other ascetic practices may be traced to the same source. As regards the doctrine of divine love, the following extracts speak for themselves:
"Jesus passed by three men. Their bodies were lean and their faces pale. He asked them, saying, 'What hath brought you to this plight?' They answered, 'Fear of the Fire.' Jesus said, 'Ye fear a thing created, and it behoves God that He should save those who fear.' Then he left them and passed by three others, whose faces were paler and their bodies leaner, and asked them, saying, 'What hath brought you to this plight?' They answered, 'Longing for Paradise.' He said, 'Ye desire a thing created, and it behoves God that He should give you that which ye hope for.' Then he went on and passed by three others of exceeding paleness and leanness, so that their faces were as mirrors of light, and he said, 'What hath brought you to this?' They answered, 'Our love of God.' Jesus said, 'Ye are the nearest to Him, ye are the nearest to Him.'"
The Syrian mystic, Ahmad ibn al-Hawari, once asked a Christian hermit:
"'What is the strongest command that ye find in your Scriptures?' The hermit replied: 'We find none stronger than this: "Love thy Creator with all thy power and might."'"
Another hermit was asked by some Moslem ascetics:
"'When is a man most persevering in devotion?' 'When love takes possession of his heart,' was the reply; 'for then he hath no joy or pleasure but in continual devotion.'"
The influence of Christianity through its hermits, monks, and heretical sects (e.g. the Messalians or Euchitæ) was twofold: ascetic and mystical. Oriental Christian mysticism, however, contained a Pagan element: it had long ago absorbed the ideas and adopted the language of Plotinus and the Neo-platonic school.
II. NEOPLATONISM
Aristotle, not Plato, is the dominant figure in Moslem philosophy, and few Mohammedans are familiar with the name of Plotinus, who was more commonly called 'the Greek Master' (al-Sheykh al-Yaunani). Another work of this school deserves particular notice: the writings falsely attributed to Dionysius the Areopagite, the convert of St. Paul. Dionysius quotes some fragments of erotic hymns by this Stephen, and a complete work, the Book of Hierotheus on the Hidden Mysteries of the Divinity, has come down to us in a unique manuscript which is now in the British Museum. The Dionysian writings, turned into Latin by John Scotus Erigena, founded medieval Christian mysticism in Western Europe. Their influence in the East was hardly less vital. They were translated from Greek into Syriac almost immediately on their appearance, and their doctrine was vigorously propagated by commentaries in the same tongue."About 850 A.D. Dionysius was known from the Tigris to the Atlantic."
Besides literary tradition there were other channels by which the doctrines of emanation, illumination, gnosis, and ecstasy were transmitted, but enough has been said to convince the reader that Greek mystical ideas were in the air and easily accessible to the Moslem inhabitants of Western Asia and Egypt, where the Sufi theosophy first took shape. One of those who bore the chief part in its development, Dhu ’l-Nun the Egyptian, is described as a philosopher and alchemist--in other words, a student of Hellenistic science. When it is added that much of his speculation agrees with what we find, for example, in the writings of Dionysius, we are drawn irresistibly to the conclusion that Neoplatonism poured into Islam a large tincture of the same mystical element in which Christianity was already steeped.
III. GNOSTICISM
Though little direct evidence is available, the conspicuous place occupied by the theory of gnosis in early Sufi speculation suggests contact with Christian Gnosticism, and it is worth noting that the parents of Ma‘ruf al-Karkhi, whose definition of Sufism as 'the apprehension of divine realities' are said to have been Sabians, i.e. Mandæans, dwelling in the Babylonian fenland between Basra and Wasit. Other Moslem saints had learned 'the mystery of the Great Name.' It was communicated to Ibrahim ibn Adham by a man whom he met while travelling in the desert, and as soon as he pronounced it he saw the prophet Khadir (Elias).
The ancient Sufis borrowed from the Manichæans the term siddiq, which they apply to their own spiritual adepts, and a later school, returning to the dualism of Mani, held the view that the diversity of phenomena arises from the admixture of light and darkness.
"The ideal of human action is freedom from the taint of darkness; and the freedom of light from darkness means the self-consciousness of light as light." {Shaikh Muhammad Iqbal, The Development of Metaphysics in Persia (1908), p. 150.}
The following version of the doctrine of the seventy thousand veils as explained by a modern Rifa‘i dervish shows clear traces of Gnosticism and is so interesting that I cannot refrain from quoting it here:
"Seventy Thousand Veils separate Allah, the One Reality, from the world of matter and of sense. And every soul passes before his birth through these seventy thousand. The inner half of these are veils of light: the outer half, veils of darkness. For every one of the veils of light passed through, in this journey towards birth, the soul puts off a divine quality: and for every one of the dark veils, it puts on an earthly quality. Thus the child is born weeping, for the soul knows its separation from Allah, the One Reality. And when the child cries in its sleep, it is because the soul remembers something of what it has lost. Otherwise, the passage through the veils has brought with it forgetfulness (nisyan): and for this reason man is called insan. He is now, as it were, in prison in his body, separated by these thick curtains from Allah.
"But the whole purpose of Sufism, the Way of the dervish, is to give him an escape from this prison, an apocalypse of the Seventy Thousand Veils, a recovery of the original unity with The One, while still in this body. The body is not to be put off; it is to be refined and made spiritual--a help and not a hindrance to the spirit. It is like a metal that has to be refined by fire and transmuted. And the sheikh tells the aspirant that he has the secret of this transmutation. 'We shall throw you into the fire of Spiritual Passion,' he says, 'and you will emerge refined.'" {"The Way" of a Mohammedan Mystic, by W. H. T. Gairdner (Leipzig, 1912), pp. 9 f.}
IV. BUDDHISM
Before the Mohammedan conquest of India in the eleventh century, the teaching of Buddha exerted considerable influence in Eastern Persia and Transoxania. We hear of flourishing Buddhist monasteries in Balkh, the metropolis of ancient Bactria, a city famous for the number of Sufis who resided in it. Professor Goldziher has called attention to the significant circumstance that the Sufi ascetic, Ibrahim ibn Adham, appears in Moslem legend as a prince of Balkh who abandoned his throne and became a wandering dervish--the story of Buddha over again. The Sufis learned the use of rosaries from Buddhist monks, and, without entering into details, it may be safely asserted that the method of Sufism, so far as it is one of ethical self-culture, ascetic meditation, and intellectual abstraction, owes a good deal to Buddhism. But the features which the two systems have in common only accentuate the fundamental difference between them. In spirit they are poles apart. The Buddhist moralises himself, the Sufi becomes moral only through knowing and loving God.
The Sufi conception of the passing-away (fana) of individual self in Universal Being is certainly of Indian origin. Its first great exponent was the Persian mystic, Bayazid of Bistam, who may have received it from his teacher, Abu ‘Ali of Sind (Scinde).
Here are some of his sayings:
"Creatures are subject to changing 'states,' but the gnostic has no 'state,' because his vestiges are effaced and his essence annihilated by the essence of another, and his traces are lost in another's traces." "Thirty years the high God was my mirror, now I am my own mirror," i.e. according to the explanation given by his biographer, "that which I was I am no more, for 'I' and 'God' is a denial of the unity of God. Since I am no more, the high God is His own mirror." "I went from God to God, until they cried from me in me, 'O Thou I!'"
This, it will be observed, is not Buddhism, but the pantheism of the Vedanta. We cannot identify fana with Nirvana unconditionally. Both terms imply the passing-away of individuality, but while Nirvana is purely negative, fana is accompanied by baqa, everlasting life in God. The rapture of the Sufi who has lost himself in ecstatic contemplation of the divine beauty is entirely opposed to the passionless intellectual serenity of the Arahat.
But the fact is that the influence of Buddhism on Mohammedan thought has been exaggerated. Much is attributed to Buddhism that is Indian rather than specifically Buddhistic: the fana theory of the Sufis is a case in point. Ordinary Moslems held the followers of Buddha in abhorrence, regarding them as idolaters, and were not likely to seek personal intercourse with them. On the other hand, for nearly a thousand years before the Mohammedan conquest, Buddhism had been powerful in Bactria and Eastern Persia generally: it must, therefore, have affected the development of Sufism in these regions.
While fana in its pantheistic form is radically different from Nirvana, the terms coincide so closely in other ways that we cannot regard them as being altogether unconnected. Fana has an ethical aspect: it involves the extinction of all passions and desires. The passing-away of evil qualities and of the evil actions which they produce is said to be brought about by the continuance of the corresponding good qualities and actions. Compare this with the definition of Nirvana given by Professor Rhys Davids:
"The extinction of that sinful, grasping condition of mind and heart, which would otherwise, according to the great mystery of Karma, be the cause of renewed individual existence. That extinction is to be brought about by, and runs parallel with, the growth of the opposite condition of mind and heart; and it is complete when that opposite condition is reached."
Apart from the doctrine of Karma, which is alien to Sufism, these definitions of fana (viewed as a moral state) and Nirvana, agree almost word for word. It would be out of place to pursue the comparison further, but we may conclude that the Sufi theory of fana was influenced to some extent by Buddhism as well as by Perso-Indian pantheism.
The receptivity of Islam to foreign ideas has been recognised by every unbiassed
inquirer, and the history of Sufism is only a single instance of the general rule. But this fact should not lead us to seek in such ideas an explanation of the whole question which I am now discussing, or to identify Sufism itself with the extraneous ingredients which it absorbed and assimilated in the course of its development. Even if Islam had been miraculously shut off from contact with foreign religions and philosophies, some form of mysticism would have arisen within it, for the seeds were already there.
How, it may be asked, could a religion founded on the simple and austere monotheism of Mohammed tolerate these new doctrines, much less make terms with them? It would seem impossible to reconcile the transcendent personality of Allah with an immanent Reality which is the very life and soul of the universe. Yet Islam has accepted Sufism. The Sufis, instead of being excommunicated, are securely established in the Mohammedan church, and the Legend of the Moslem Saints records the wildest excesses of Oriental pantheism.
The holy Koran is that infallible touchstone by which every Mohammedan theory and practice must be proved. Are any germs of mysticism to be found there? The Koran, starts with the notion of Allah, the One, Eternal, and Almighty God, far above human feelings and aspirations--the Lord of His slaves, not the Father of His children; a judge meting out stern justice to sinners, and extending His mercy only to those who avert His wrath by repentance, humility, and unceasing works of devotion; a God of fear rather than of love. This is one side, and certainly the most prominent side, of Mohammed's teaching; but while he set an impassable gulf between the world and Allah, his deeper instinct craved a direct revelation from God to the soul. There are no contradictions in the logic of feeling. Mohammed, who had in him something of the mystic, felt God both as far and near, both as transcendent and immanent. In the latter aspect, Allah is the light of the heavens and the earth, a Being who works in the world and in the soul of man.
"If My servants ask thee about Me, lo, I am near" (Kor. 2.182); "We (God) are nearer to him than his own neck-vein" (50.15); "And in the earth are signs to those of real faith, and in yourselves. What! do ye not see?" (51.20-21).
It was a long time ere they saw. The Moslem consciousness, haunted by terrible visions of the wrath to come, slowly and painfully awoke to the significance of those liberating ideas.
The relation of individual Sufis to Islam varies from more or less entire conformity to a merely nominal profession of belief in Allah and His Prophet. While the Koran and the Traditions are generally acknowledged to be the unalterable standard of religious truth, this acknowledgment does not include the recognition of any external authority which shall decide what is orthodox and what is heretical. Creeds and catechisms count for nothing in the Sufi's estimation. Why should he concern himself with these when he possesses a doctrine derived immediately from God? As he reads the Koran with studious meditation and rapt attention, lo, the hidden meanings--infinite, inexhaustible--of the Holy Word flash upon his inward eye. This is what the Sufis call istinbat, a sort of intuitive deduction; the mysterious inflow of divinely revealed knowledge into hearts made pure by repentance and filled with the thought of God, and the outflow of that knowledge upon the interpreting tongue. Naturally, the doctrines elicited by means of istinbat do not agree very well either with Mohammedan theology or with each other, but the discord is easily explained. Theologians, who interpret the letter, cannot be expected to reach the same conclusions as mystics, who interpret the spirit; and if both classes differ amongst themselves, that is a merciful dispensation of divine wisdom, since theological controversy serves to extinguish religious error, while the variety of mystical truth corresponds to the manifold degrees and modes of mystical experience.
During the early Middle Ages Islam was a growing organism, and gradually became transformed under the influence of diverse movements, of which Sufism itself was one. Mohammedan orthodoxy in its present shape owes much to Ghazali, and Ghazali was a Sufi. Through his work and example the Sufistic interpretation of Islam has in no small measure been harmonised with the rival claims of reason and tradition, but just because of this he is less valuable than mystics of a purer type to the student who wishes to know what Sufism essentially is.
Although the numerous definitions of Sufism which occur in Arabic and Persian books on the subject are historically interesting, their chief importance lies in showing that Sufism is undefinable. Jalaluddin Rumi in his Masnavi tells a story about an elephant which some Hindoos were exhibiting in a dark room. Many people gathered to see it, but, as the place was too dark to permit them to see the elephant, they all felt it with their hands, to gain an idea of what it was like. One felt its trunk, and said that the animal resembled a water-pipe; another felt its ear, and said it must be a large fan; another its leg, and thought it must be a pillar; another felt its back, and declared that the beast must be like an immense throne. So it is with those who define Sufism: they can only attempt to express what they themselves have felt, and there is no conceivable formula that will comprise every shade of personal and intimate religious feeling. Since, however, these definitions illustrate with convenient brevity certain aspects and characteristics of Sufism, a few specimens may be given.
"Sufism is this: that actions should be passing over the Sufi (i.e. being done upon him) which are known to God only, and that he should always be with God in a way that is known to God only." "Sufism is wholly self-discipline." "Sufism is, to possess nothing and to be possessed by nothing." "Sufism is not a system composed of rules or sciences but a moral disposition; i.e. if it were a rule, it could be made one's own by strenuous exertion, and if it were a science, it could be acquired by instruction; but on the contrary it is a disposition, according to the saying, 'Form yourselves on the moral nature of God'; and the moral nature of God cannot be attained either by means of rules or by means of sciences." "Sufism is freedom and generosity and absence of self-constraint." "It is this: that God should make thee die to thyself and should make thee live in Him." "To behold the imperfection of the phenomenal world, nay, to close the eye to everything imperfect in contemplation of Him who is remote from all imperfection--that is Sufism." "Sufism is control of the faculties and observance of the breaths."
"It is Sufism to put away what thou hast in thy head, to give what thou hast in thy hand, and not to recoil from whatsoever befalls thee."
The reader will perceive that Sufism is a word uniting many divergent meanings, and that in sketching its main features one is obliged to make a sort of composite portrait, which does not represent any particular type exclusively. The Sufis are not a sect, they have no dogmatic system, the tariqas or paths by which they seek God "are in number as the souls of men" and vary infinitely, though a family likeness may be traced in them all. Descriptions of such a Protean phenomenon must differ widely from one another, and the impression produced in each case will depend on the choice of materials and the prominence given to this or that aspect of the many-sided whole.
THE PATH OF ILLUMINATION AND ECSTASY
MYSTICS of every race and creed have described the progress of the spiritual life as a Journey or a pilgrimage. Other symbols have been used for the same purpose, but this one appears to be almost universal in its range. The Sufi who sets out to seek God calls himself a 'traveller' (salik); he advances by slow 'stages' (maqamat) along a 'path' (tariqat) to the goal of union with Reality (fana fi ’l-Haqq). Should he venture to make a map of this interior ascent, it will not correspond exactly with any of those made by previous explorers. Such maps or scales of perfection were elaborated by Sufi teachers at an early period, and the unlucky Moslem habit of systematising has produced an enormous aftercrop. The 'path' expounded by the author of the Kitab al-Luma‘, perhaps the oldest comprehensive treatise on Sufism that we now possess, consists of the following seven 'stages', each of which (except the first member of the series) is the result of the 'stages' immediately preceding it--(l) Repentance, (2) abstinence, (3) renunciation, (4) poverty, (5) patience, (6) trust in God, (7) satisfaction. The 'stages' constitute the ascetic and ethical discipline of the Sufi, and must be carefully distinguished from the so-called 'states' (ahwal, plural of hal), which form a similar psychological chain. The above writer enumerates ten 'states'--Meditation, nearness to God, love, fear, hope, longing, intimacy, tranquillity, contemplation, and certainty. While the 'stages' can be acquired and mastered by one's own efforts, the 'states' are spiritual feelings and dispositions over which a man has no control:
"They descend from God into his heart, without his being able to repel them when they come or to retain them when they go."
The Sufi's 'path' is not finished until he has traversed all the 'stages,' making himself perfect in every one of them before advancing to the next, and has also experienced whatever 'states' it pleases God to bestow upon him. Then, and only then, is he permanently raised to the higher planes of consciousness which Sufis call 'the Gnosis' (ma‘rifat) and 'the Truth' (haqiqat), where the 'seeker' (talib) becomes the 'knower' or 'gnostic' (‘arif), and realises that knowledge, knower, and known are One.
Having sketched, as briefly as possible, the external framework of the method by which the Sufi approaches his goal, now here paint some account of its inner workings. The first place in every list of 'stages' is occupied by repentance (tawbat). This is the Moslem term for 'conversion,' and marks the beginning of a new life. In the biographies of eminent Sufis the dreams, visions, auditions, and other experiences which caused them to enter on the Path are usually related. Trivial as they may seem, these records have a psychological basis, and, if authentic, would be worth studying in detail. Repentance is described as the awakening of the soul from the slumber of heedlessness, so that the sinner becomes aware of his evil ways and feels contrition for past disobedience. He is not truly penitent, however, unless (1) he at once abandons the sin or sins of which he is conscious, and (2) firmly resolves that he will never return to these sins in the future. It he should fail to keep his vow, he must again turn to God, whose mercy is infinite. A certain well-known Sufi repented seventy times and fell back into sin seventy times before he made a lasting repentance. The convert must also, as far as lies in his power, satisfy all those whom he has injured. Many examples of such restitution might be culled from the Legend of the Moslem Saints.
According to the high mystical theory, repentance is purely an act of divine grace, coming from God to man, not from man to God. Some one said to Rabi‘a:
"I have committed many sins; if I turn in penitence towards God, will He turn in mercy towards me?" "Nay," she replied," but if He shall turn towards thee, thou wilt turn towards Him."
The question whether sins ought to be remembered after repentance or forgotten illustrates a fundamental point in Sufi ethics: the difference between what is taught to novices and disciples and what is held as an esoteric doctrine by adepts. Any Mohammedan director of souls would tell his pupils that to think humbly and remorsefully of one's sins is a sovereign remedy against spiritual pride, but he himself might very well believe that real repentance consists in forgetting everything except God.
"The penitent," says Hujwiri, "is a lover of God, and the lover of God is in contemplation of God: in contemplation it is wrong to remember sin, for recollection of sin is a veil between God and the contemplative."
Sin appertains to self-existence, which itself is the greatest of all sins. To forget sin is to forget self.
This is only one application of a principle which runs through the whole ethical system of Sufism and will be more fully explained in a subsequent chapter. Its dangers are evident, but we must in fairness allow that the same theory of conduct may not be equally suitable to those who have made themselves perfect in moral discipline and to those who are still striving after perfection.
Over the gate of repentance it is written:
"All self abandon ye who enter here!"
The convert now begins what is called by Christian mystics the Purgative Way. If he follows the general rule, he will take a director (Sheykh, Pir, Murshid), i.e. a holy man of ripe experience and profound knowledge, whose least word is absolute law to his disciples. A 'seeker' who attempts to traverse the 'Path' without assistance receives little sympathy. Of such a one it is said that 'his guide is Satan,' and he is likened to a tree that for want of the gardener's care brings forth 'none or bitter fruit.'
Speaking of the Sufi Sheykhs, Hujwiri says:
"When a novice joins them, with the purpose of renouncing the world, the subject him to spiritual discipline for the space of three years. If he fulfil the requirements of this discipline, well and good; otherwise, they declare that he cannot be admitted to the 'Path.' The first year is devoted to service of the people, the second year to service of God, and the third year to watching over his own heart. He can serve the people, only when he places himself in the rank of servants and all others in the rank of masters, i.e. he must regard all, without exception, as being better than himself, and must deem it his duty to serve all alike. And he can serve God, only when he cuts off all his selfish interests relating either to the present or to the future life, and worships God for God's sake alone, inasmuch as whoever worships God for any thing's sake worships himself, not God. And he can watch over his heart, only when his thoughts are collected and every care is dismissed, so that in communion with God he guards his heart from the assaults of heedlessness. When these qualifications are possessed by the novice, he may wear the muraqqa‘at (the patched frock worn by dervishes) as a true mystic, not merely as an imitator of others."
Shibli was a pupil of the famous theosophist Junayd of Baghdad. On his conversion, he came to Junayd, saying:
"They tell me that you possess the pearl of divine knowledge: either give it me or sell it." Junayd answered: "I cannot sell it, for you have not the price thereof; and if I give it you, you will have gained it cheaply. You do not know its value. Cast yourself headlong, like me, into this ocean, in order that you may win the pearl by waiting patiently."
Shibli asked what he must do.
"Go," said Junayd, "and sell sulphur."
At the end of a year he said to Shibli:
"This trading makes you well known. Become a dervish and occupy yourself solely with begging."
During a whole year Shibli wandered through the streets of Baghdad, begging of the passers-by, but no one heeded him. Then he returned to Junayd, who exclaimed:
"See now! You are nothing in people's eyes. Never set your mind on them or take any account of them at all. For some time" (he continued) "you were a chamberlain and acted as governor of a province. Go to that country and ask pardon of all those whom you have wronged."
Shibli obeyed and spent four years in going from door to door, until he had obtained an acquittance from every person except one, whom he failed to trace. On his return, Junayd said to him:
"You still have some regard to reputation. Go and be a beggar for one year more."
Every day Shibli used to bring the alms that were given him to Junayd, who bestowed them on the poor and kept Shibli without food until the next morning. When a year had passed in this way, Junayd accepted him as one of his disciples on condition that he should perform the duties of a servant to the others. After a year's service, Junayd asked him:
"What think you of yourself now?" Shibli replied: "I deem myself the meanest of God's creatures." " Now," said the master, "your faith is firm."
The details of this training--the fasts and vigils, the vows of silence, the long days and nights of solitary meditation, all the weapons and tactics, in short, of that battle against one's self the Prophet declared to be more painful and meritorious than the Holy War. On the other hand, it wil more apt to describe in a general way the characteristic theories and practices for which the 'Path' is a convenient designation. These may be treated under the following heads: Poverty, Mortification, Trust in God, and Recollection.
Whereas poverty is negative in nature, involving detachment from all that is worldly and unreal, the three remaining terms denote the positive counterpart of that process, namely, the ethical discipline by which the soul is brought into harmonious relations with Reality.
The fatalistic spirit which brooded darkly over the childhood of Islam--the feeling that all human actions are determined by an unseen Power, and in themselves are worthless and vain--caused renunciation to become the watchword of early Moslem asceticism. Every true believer is bound to abstain from unlawful pleasures, but the ascetic acquires merit by abstaining from those which are lawful. At first, renunciation was understood almost exclusively in a material sense. To have as few worldly goods as possible seemed the surest means of gaining salvation. Dawud al-Ta’i owned nothing except a mat of rushes, a brick which he used as a pillow, and a leathern vessel which served him for drinking and washing. A certain man dreamed that he saw Malik ibn Dinar and Mohammed ibn Wasi‘ being led into Paradise, and that Malik was admitted before his companion. He cried out in astonishment, for he thought Mohammed ibn Wasi‘ had a superior claim to the honour. "Yes," came the answer, "but Mohammed ibn Wasi‘ possessed two shirts, and Malik only one. That is the reason why Malik is preferred."
The Sufi ideal of poverty goes far beyond this. True poverty is not merely lack of wealth, but lack of desire for wealth: the empty heart as well as the empty hand. The 'poor man' (faqir) and the 'mendicant' (dervish) are names by which the Mohammedan mystic is proud to be known, because they imply that he is stripped of every thought or wish that would divert his mind from God. "To be severed entirely from both the present life and the future life, and to want nothing besides the Lord of the present life and the future life-¬that is to be truly poor." Such a faqir is denuded of individual existence, so that he does not attribute to himself any action, feeling, or quality. He may even be rich, in the common meaning of the word, though spiritually he is the poorest of the poor; for, sometimes, God endows His saints with an outward show of wealth and worldliness in order to hide them from the profane.
Poverty is only the beginning of Sufism. Faqirs, Jami says, renounce all worldly things for the sake of pleasing God. They are urged to this sacrifice by one of three motives: (a) Hope of an easy reckoning on the Day of Judgment, or fear of being punished; (b) desire of Paradise; (c) longing for spiritual peace and inward composure. Thus, inasmuch as they are not disinterested but seek to benefit themselves, they rank below the Sufi, who has no will of his own and depends absolutely on the will of God. It is the absence of 'self' that distinguishes the Sufi from the faqir.
Here are some maxims for dervishes:
"Do not beg unless you are starving. The Caliph Omar flogged a man who begged after having satisfied his hunger. When compelled to beg, do not accept more than you need."
• "Be good-natured and uncomplaining and thank God for your poverty."
• "Do not flatter the rich for giving, nor blame them for withholding."
• "Dread the loss of poverty more than the rich man dreads the loss of wealth."
• "Take what is voluntarily offered: it is the daily bread which God sends to you: do not refuse God's gift."
• "Let no thought of the morrow enter your mind, else you will incur everlasting perdition." "Do not make God a springe to catch alms."
The Sufi teachers gradually built up a system of asceticism and moral culture which is founded on the fact that there is in man an element of evil--the lower or appetitive soul. This evil self, the seat of passion and lust, is called nafs; it may be considered broadly equivalent to 'the flesh,' and with its allies, the world and the devil, it constitutes the great obstacle to the attainment of union with God.
The Prophet said:
"Thy worst enemy is thy nafs, which is between thy two sides." I do not intend to discuss the various opinions as to its nature, but the proof of its materiality is too curious to be omitted. Mohammed ibn ‘Ulyan, an eminent Sufi, relates that one day something like a young fox came forth from his throat, and God caused him to know that it was his nafs. He trod on it, but it grew bigger at every kick that he gave it.
He said:
"Other things are destroyed by pain and blows: why dost thou increase?" " Because I was created perverse," it replied; "what is pain to other things is pleasure to me, and their pleasure is my pain."
The nafs of Hallaj was seen running behind him in the shape of a dog; and other cases are recorded in which it appeared as a snake or a mouse.
Mortification of the nafs is the chief work of devotion, and leads, directly or indirectly, to the contemplative life. All the Sheykhs are agreed that no disciple who neglects this duty will ever learn the rudiments of Sufism. The principle of mortification is that the nafs should be weaned from those things to which it is accustomed, that it should be encouraged to resist its passions, that its pride should be broken, and that it should be brought through suffering and tribulation to recognise the vileness of its original nature and the impurity of its actions.
Concerning the outward methods of mortification, such as fasting, silence, and solitude, a great deal might be written, but we must now pass on to the higher ethical discipline which completes the Path.
Self-mortification, as advanced Sufis understand it, is a moral transmutation of the inner man. When they say, "Die before ye die," they do not mean to assert that the lower self can be essentially destroyed, but that it can and should be purged of its attributes, which are wholly evil. These attributes--ignorance, pride, envy, uncharitableness, etc.--are extinguished, and replaced by the opposite qualities, when the will is surrendered to God and when the mind is concentrated on Him. Therefore 'dying to self' is really 'living in God.' The mystical aspects of the doctrine thus stated will occupy a considerable part of the following chapters; here we are mainly interested in its ethical import.
The Sufi who has eradicated self-will is said, in technical language, to have reached the 'stages' of 'acquiescence' or 'satisfaction' (rida) and 'trust in God' (tawakkul).
A dervish fell into the Tigris. Seeing that he could not swim, a man on the bank cried out, "Shall I tell some one to bring you ashore?" "No," said the dervish. "Then do you wish to be drowned?" "No." "What, then, do you wish?" The dervish replied, "God's will be done! What have I to do with wishing?"
'Trust in God,' in its extreme form, involves the renunciation of every personal initiative and volition; total passivity like that of a corpse in the hands of the washer who prepares it for burial; perfect indifference towards anything that is even remotely connected with one's self. A special class of the ancient Sufis took their name from this 'trust,' which they applied, so far as they were able, to matters of everyday life. For instance, they would not seek food, work for hire, practise any trade, or allow medicine to be given them when they were ill. Quietly they committed themselves to God's care, never doubting that He, to whom belong the treasures of earth and heaven, would provide for their wants, and that their allotted portion would come to them as surely as it comes to the birds, which neither sow nor reap, and to the fish in the sea, and to the child in the womb.
These principles depend ultimately on the Sufistic theory of the divine unity, as is shown by Shaqiq of Balkh in the following passage:
"There are three things which a man is bound to practise. Whosoever neglects any one of them must needs neglect them all, and whosoever cleaves to any one of them must needs cleave to them all. Strive, therefore, to understand, and consider heedfully,
"The first is this, that with your mind and your tongue and your actions you declare God to be One; and that, “having declared Him to be One, and having declared that none benefits you or harms you except Him, you devote all your actions to Him alone. If you act a single jot of your actions for the sake of another, your thought and speech are corrupt, since your motive in acting for another's sake must be hope or fear; and when you act from hope or fear of other than God, who is the lord and sustainer of all things, you have taken to yourself another god to honour and venerate.
"Secondly, that while you speak and act in the sincere belief that there is no God except Him, you should trust Him more than the world or money or uncle or father or mother or any one on the face of the earth.
"Thirdly, when you have established these two things, namely, sincere belief in the unity of God and trust in Him, it behoves you to be satisfied with Him and not to be angry on account of anything that vexes you. Beware of anger! Let your heart be with Him always, let it not be withdrawn from Him for a single moment."
The 'trusting' Sufi has no thought beyond the present hour. On one occasion Shaqiq asked those who sat listening to his discourse:
"If God causes you to die to-day, think ye that He will demand from you the prayers of to-morrow?" They answered: "No; how should He demand from us the prayers of a day on which we are not alive?" Shaqiq said: "Even as He will not demand from you the prayers of to-morrow, so do ye not seek from Him the provender of to-morrow. It may be that ye will not live so long."
In view of the practical consequences of attempting to live 'on trust,' it is not surprising to read the advice given to those who would perfectly fulfil the doctrine: "Let them dig a grave and bury themselves." Later Sufis hold that active exertion for the purpose of obtaining the means of subsistence is quite compatible with 'trust,' according to the saying of the Prophet, "Trust in God and tie the camel's leg." They define tawakkul as an habitual state of mind, which is impaired only by self-pleasing thoughts; e.g. it was accounted a breach of 'trust' to think Paradise a more desirable place than Hell.
The highest morality springs from nothing but love, when self-surrender becomes self-devotion. Among the positive elements in the Sufi discipline there is one that Moslem mystics unanimously regard as the keystone of practical religion. It is referred as the dhikr, an exercise well known to Western readers from the careful description given by Edward Lane in his Modern Egyptians, and later by Professor D. B. Macdonald in his Aspects of Islam. The term dhikr--'recollection' seems to be the most appropriate equivalent in English--signifies 'mentioning,' 'remembering,' or simply 'thinking of'; in the Koran the Faithful are commanded to "remember God often," a plain act of worship without any mystical savour. But the Sufis made a practice of repeating the name of God or some religious formula, e.g. "Glory to Allah" (subhan Allah), "There is no god but Allah" (la ilaha illa ’llah), accompanying the mechanical intonation with an intense concentration of every faculty upon the single word or phrase; and they attach greater value to this irregular litany, which enables them to enjoy uninterrupted communion with God, than to the five services of prayer performed, at fixed hours of the day and night, by all Moslems.
Recollection may be either spoken or silent, but it is best, according to the usual opinion, that tongue and mind should co-operate. Sahl ibn ‘Abdallah bade one of his disciples endeavour to say "Allah! Allah!" the whole day without intermission. When he had acquired the habit of doing so, Sahl instructed him to repeat the same words during the night, until they came forth from his lips even while he was asleep. "Now," said he, "be silent and occupy yourself with recollecting them." At last the disciple's whole being was absorbed by the thought of Allah. One day a log fell on his head, and the words "Allah, Allah" were seen written in the blood that trickled from the wound.
Ghazali describes the method and effects of dhikr in a passage which Macdonald has summarised as follows:
"Let him reduce his heart to a state in which the existence of anything and its non-existence are the same to him. Then let him sit alone in some corner, limiting his religious duties to what is absolutely necessary, and not occupying himself either with reciting the Koran or considering its meaning or with books of religious traditions or with anything of the sort. And let him see to it that nothing save God most High enters his mind. Then, as he sits in solitude, let him not cease saying continuously with his tongue, 'Allah, Allah,' keeping his thought on it. At last he will reach a state when the motion of his tongue will cease, and it will seem as though the word flowed from it. Let him persevere in this until all trace of motion is removed from his tongue, and he finds his heart persevering in the thought. Let him still persevere until the form of the word, its letters and shape, is removed from his heart, and there remains the idea alone, as though clinging to his heart, inseparable from it. So far, all is dependent on his will and choice; but to bring the mercy of God does not stand in his will or choice. He has now laid himself bare to the breathings of that mercy, and nothing remains but to await what God will open to him, as God has done after this manner to prophets and saints. If he fo11ows the above course, he may be sure that the light of the Real will shine out in his heart. At first unstable, like a flash of lightning, it turns and returns; though sometimes it hangs back. And if it returns, sometimes it abides and sometimes it is momentary. And if it abides, sometimes its abiding is long, and sometimes short."
Another Sufi puts the gist of the matter in a sentence, thus:
"The first stage of dhikr is to forget self, and the last stage is the effacement of the worshipper in the act of worship, without consciousness of worship, and such absorption in the object of worship as precludes return to the subject thereof."
Recollection can be aided in various ways. When Shibli was a novice, he went daily into a cellar, taking with him a bundle of sticks. If his attention flagged, he would beat himself until the sticks broke, and sometimes the whole bundle would be finished before evening; then he would dash his hands and feet against the wall. The Indian practice of inhaling and exhaling the breath was known to the Sufis of the ninth century and was much used afterwards. Among the Dervish Orders music, singing, and dancing are favourite means of inducing the state of trance called 'passing-away' (fana), which, as appears from the definition quoted above, is the climax and raison d'être of the method.
In 'meditation' (muraqabat) we recognise a form of self-concentration similar to the Buddhistic dhyana and samadhi. This is what the Prophet meant when he said, "Worship God as though thou sawest Him, for if thou seest Him not, yet He sees thee." Anyone who feels sure that God is always watching over him will devote himself to meditating on God, and no evil thoughts or diabolic suggestions will find their way into his heart. Nuri used to meditate so intently that not a hair on his body stirred. He declared that he had learned this habit from a cat which was observing a mouse-hole, and that she was far more quiet than he. Abu Sa‘id ibn Abi ’l-Khayr kept his eyes fixed on his navel. It is said that the Devil is smitten with epilepsy when he approaches a man thus occupied, just as happens to other men when the Devil takes possession of them.
These are the main lines on which the preparatory training of the Sufi is conducted. This may be deemed sign enough to have been invested by his Sheykh with the patched frock (muraqqa‘at or khirqat), which is an outward sign that he has successfully emerged from the discipline of the 'Path,' and is now advancing with uncertain steps towards the Light, as when toil-worn travellers, having gained the summit of a deep gorge, suddenly catch glimpses of the sun and cover their eyes with ILLUMINATION AND ECSTASY.
Editor’s Note:
For the present incarnation of
MYSTICISM: THE PATH OF ILLUMINATION AND ECSTASY
I have richly drawn on
THE MYSTICS OF ISLAM
by Reynold A. Nicholson
Routledge, Kegan Paul, London[1914]
---yayati
Sufism, the religious philosophy of Islam, is described in the oldest extant definition as 'the apprehension of divine realities,' and Mohammedan mystics are fond of calling themselves Ahl al-Haqq, 'the followers of the Real.' {Al-Haqq is the term generally used by Sufis when they refer to God.}
It may be said, truly enough, that all mystical experiences ultimately meet in a single point; but that point assumes widely different aspects according to the mystic's religion, race, and temperament, while the converging lines of approach admit of almost infinite variety. Though all the great types of mysticism have something in common, each is marked by peculiar characteristics resulting from the circumstances in which it arose and flourished. Just as the Christian type cannot be understood without reference to Christianity, so the Mohammedan type must be viewed in connexion with the outward and inward development of Islam.
The word 'mystic,' which has passed from Greek religion into European literature, is represented in Arabic, Persian, and Turkish, the three chief languages of Islam, by 'Sufi.' The terms, however, are not precisely synonymous, for 'Sufi' has a specific religious connotation, and is restricted by usage to those mystics who profess the Mohammedan faith. And the Arabic word, in course of time it appropriated the high significance of the Greek--lips sealed by holy mysteries, eyes closed in visionary rapture. Most Sufis have derived it from an Arabic root which conveys the notion of 'purity'; this would make 'Sufi' mean 'one who is pure in heart' or 'one of the elect.'
The earliest Sufis were, in fact, ascetics and quietists rather than mystics. An overwhelming consciousness of sin, combined with a dread of Judgment Day and the torments of Hell fire, so vividly painted in the Koran, drove them to seek salvation in flight from the world. On the other hand, the Koran warned them that salvation depended entirely on the inscrutable will of Allah, who guides aright the good and leads astray the wicked. Their fate was inscribed on the eternal tables of His providence, nothing could alter it. Only this was sure, that if they were destined to be saved by fasting and praying and pious works--then they would be saved. Such a belief ends naturally in quietism, complete and unquestioning submission to the divine will, an attitude characteristic of Sufism in its oldest form.
So far, there was no great difference between the Sufi and the orthodox Mohammedan, except that the Sufis attached extraordinary importance to certain Koranic doctrines, and developed them at the expense of others which many Moslems might consider equally essential. It must also be allowed that the ascetic movement among Sufi Mystics was inspired by Christian ideals, and contrasted sharply with the active and life-affirming spirit of Islam. In a famous sentence the Prophet denounced monkish austerities and bade his people devote themselves to the holy war against unbelievers; and he gave, as is well known, the most convincing testimony in favour of marriage. Although his condemnation of celibacy did not remain without effect, the conquest of Persia, Syria, and Egypt by his successors brought the Moslems into contact with ideas which profoundly modified their outlook on life and religion. Hence arose the Murjites, who set faith above works and emphasised the divine love and goodness; the Qadarites who affirmed, and the Jabarites who denied, that men are responsible for their actions; the Mu‘tazilites, who built a theology on the basis of reason, rejecting the qualities of Allah as incompatible with His unity, and predestinarianism as contrary to His justice; and finally the Ash‘arites, the scholastic theologians of Islam, who formulated the rigid metaphysical and doctrinal system that underlies the creed of orthodox Mohammedans at the present time. All these speculations, influenced as they were by Greek theology and philosophy, reacted powerfully upon Sufism. Early in the third century of the Hegira--the ninth after Christ--we find manifest signs of the new leaven stirring within it. Not that Sufis ceased to mortify the flesh and take pride in their poverty, but they now began to regard asceticism as only the first stage of a long journey, the preliminary training for a larger spiritual life than the mere ascetic is able to conceive. The nature of the change may be illustrated by quoting a few sentences which have come down to us from the mystics of this period.
"Love is not to be learned from men: it is one of God's gifts and comes of His grace." "None refrains from the lusts of this world save him in whose heart there is a light that keeps him always busied with the next world." "When the gnostic's spiritual eye is opened, his bodily eye is shut: he sees nothing but God." "If gnosis were to take visible shape all who looked thereon would die at the sight of its beauty and loveliness and goodness and grace, and every brightness would become dark beside the splendour thereof."
These ideas--Light, Knowledge, and Love--form, as it were, the keynotes of the new Sufism, rest upon a pantheistic faith which deposed the One transcendent God of Islam and worshipped in His stead One Real Being who dwells and works everywhere, and whose throne is not less, but more, in the human heart than in the heaven of heavens. Before going further, it will be convenient to answer a question which the reader may have asked himself--Whence did the Moslems of the ninth century derive this doctrine?
Modern research has proved that the origin of Sufism cannot be traced back to a single definite cause, and has thereby discredited the sweeping generalisations which represent it, for instance, as a reaction of the Aryan mind against a conquering Semitic religion, and as the product, essentially, of Indian or Persian thought.
If Sufism was nothing but a revolt of the Aryan spirit, how are we to explain the undoubted fact that some of the leading pioneers of Mohammedan mysticism were natives of Syria and Egypt, and Arabs by race? Similarly, the advocates of a Buddhistic or Vedantic origin forget that the main current of Indian influence upon Islamic civilisation belongs to a later epoch, whereas Moslem theology, philosophy, and science put forth their first luxuriant shoots on a soil that was saturated with Hellenistic culture. The truth is that Sufism is a complex thing, and therefore no simple answer can be given to the question how it originated. The various movements and forces moulded Sufism, and determined what direction it should take in the early stages of its growth and the most important were external, i.e. non-Islamic, influences.
CHRISTIANITY
It is obvious that the ascetic and quietistic tendencies were in harmony with Christian theory and drew nourishment therefrom. Many Gospel texts and apocryphal sayings of Jesus are cited in the oldest Sufi biographies, and the Christian anchorite (rahib) often appears in the rôle of a teacher giving instruction and advice to wandering Moslem ascetics.
We have seen that the woollen dress, from which the name 'Sufi' is derived, is of Christian origin: vows of silence, litanies (dhikr), and other ascetic practices may be traced to the same source. As regards the doctrine of divine love, the following extracts speak for themselves:
"Jesus passed by three men. Their bodies were lean and their faces pale. He asked them, saying, 'What hath brought you to this plight?' They answered, 'Fear of the Fire.' Jesus said, 'Ye fear a thing created, and it behoves God that He should save those who fear.' Then he left them and passed by three others, whose faces were paler and their bodies leaner, and asked them, saying, 'What hath brought you to this plight?' They answered, 'Longing for Paradise.' He said, 'Ye desire a thing created, and it behoves God that He should give you that which ye hope for.' Then he went on and passed by three others of exceeding paleness and leanness, so that their faces were as mirrors of light, and he said, 'What hath brought you to this?' They answered, 'Our love of God.' Jesus said, 'Ye are the nearest to Him, ye are the nearest to Him.'"
The Syrian mystic, Ahmad ibn al-Hawari, once asked a Christian hermit:
"'What is the strongest command that ye find in your Scriptures?' The hermit replied: 'We find none stronger than this: "Love thy Creator with all thy power and might."'"
Another hermit was asked by some Moslem ascetics:
"'When is a man most persevering in devotion?' 'When love takes possession of his heart,' was the reply; 'for then he hath no joy or pleasure but in continual devotion.'"
The influence of Christianity through its hermits, monks, and heretical sects (e.g. the Messalians or Euchitæ) was twofold: ascetic and mystical. Oriental Christian mysticism, however, contained a Pagan element: it had long ago absorbed the ideas and adopted the language of Plotinus and the Neo-platonic school.
II. NEOPLATONISM
Aristotle, not Plato, is the dominant figure in Moslem philosophy, and few Mohammedans are familiar with the name of Plotinus, who was more commonly called 'the Greek Master' (al-Sheykh al-Yaunani). Another work of this school deserves particular notice: the writings falsely attributed to Dionysius the Areopagite, the convert of St. Paul. Dionysius quotes some fragments of erotic hymns by this Stephen, and a complete work, the Book of Hierotheus on the Hidden Mysteries of the Divinity, has come down to us in a unique manuscript which is now in the British Museum. The Dionysian writings, turned into Latin by John Scotus Erigena, founded medieval Christian mysticism in Western Europe. Their influence in the East was hardly less vital. They were translated from Greek into Syriac almost immediately on their appearance, and their doctrine was vigorously propagated by commentaries in the same tongue."About 850 A.D. Dionysius was known from the Tigris to the Atlantic."
Besides literary tradition there were other channels by which the doctrines of emanation, illumination, gnosis, and ecstasy were transmitted, but enough has been said to convince the reader that Greek mystical ideas were in the air and easily accessible to the Moslem inhabitants of Western Asia and Egypt, where the Sufi theosophy first took shape. One of those who bore the chief part in its development, Dhu ’l-Nun the Egyptian, is described as a philosopher and alchemist--in other words, a student of Hellenistic science. When it is added that much of his speculation agrees with what we find, for example, in the writings of Dionysius, we are drawn irresistibly to the conclusion that Neoplatonism poured into Islam a large tincture of the same mystical element in which Christianity was already steeped.
III. GNOSTICISM
Though little direct evidence is available, the conspicuous place occupied by the theory of gnosis in early Sufi speculation suggests contact with Christian Gnosticism, and it is worth noting that the parents of Ma‘ruf al-Karkhi, whose definition of Sufism as 'the apprehension of divine realities' are said to have been Sabians, i.e. Mandæans, dwelling in the Babylonian fenland between Basra and Wasit. Other Moslem saints had learned 'the mystery of the Great Name.' It was communicated to Ibrahim ibn Adham by a man whom he met while travelling in the desert, and as soon as he pronounced it he saw the prophet Khadir (Elias).
The ancient Sufis borrowed from the Manichæans the term siddiq, which they apply to their own spiritual adepts, and a later school, returning to the dualism of Mani, held the view that the diversity of phenomena arises from the admixture of light and darkness.
"The ideal of human action is freedom from the taint of darkness; and the freedom of light from darkness means the self-consciousness of light as light." {Shaikh Muhammad Iqbal, The Development of Metaphysics in Persia (1908), p. 150.}
The following version of the doctrine of the seventy thousand veils as explained by a modern Rifa‘i dervish shows clear traces of Gnosticism and is so interesting that I cannot refrain from quoting it here:
"Seventy Thousand Veils separate Allah, the One Reality, from the world of matter and of sense. And every soul passes before his birth through these seventy thousand. The inner half of these are veils of light: the outer half, veils of darkness. For every one of the veils of light passed through, in this journey towards birth, the soul puts off a divine quality: and for every one of the dark veils, it puts on an earthly quality. Thus the child is born weeping, for the soul knows its separation from Allah, the One Reality. And when the child cries in its sleep, it is because the soul remembers something of what it has lost. Otherwise, the passage through the veils has brought with it forgetfulness (nisyan): and for this reason man is called insan. He is now, as it were, in prison in his body, separated by these thick curtains from Allah.
"But the whole purpose of Sufism, the Way of the dervish, is to give him an escape from this prison, an apocalypse of the Seventy Thousand Veils, a recovery of the original unity with The One, while still in this body. The body is not to be put off; it is to be refined and made spiritual--a help and not a hindrance to the spirit. It is like a metal that has to be refined by fire and transmuted. And the sheikh tells the aspirant that he has the secret of this transmutation. 'We shall throw you into the fire of Spiritual Passion,' he says, 'and you will emerge refined.'" {"The Way" of a Mohammedan Mystic, by W. H. T. Gairdner (Leipzig, 1912), pp. 9 f.}
IV. BUDDHISM
Before the Mohammedan conquest of India in the eleventh century, the teaching of Buddha exerted considerable influence in Eastern Persia and Transoxania. We hear of flourishing Buddhist monasteries in Balkh, the metropolis of ancient Bactria, a city famous for the number of Sufis who resided in it. Professor Goldziher has called attention to the significant circumstance that the Sufi ascetic, Ibrahim ibn Adham, appears in Moslem legend as a prince of Balkh who abandoned his throne and became a wandering dervish--the story of Buddha over again. The Sufis learned the use of rosaries from Buddhist monks, and, without entering into details, it may be safely asserted that the method of Sufism, so far as it is one of ethical self-culture, ascetic meditation, and intellectual abstraction, owes a good deal to Buddhism. But the features which the two systems have in common only accentuate the fundamental difference between them. In spirit they are poles apart. The Buddhist moralises himself, the Sufi becomes moral only through knowing and loving God.
The Sufi conception of the passing-away (fana) of individual self in Universal Being is certainly of Indian origin. Its first great exponent was the Persian mystic, Bayazid of Bistam, who may have received it from his teacher, Abu ‘Ali of Sind (Scinde).
Here are some of his sayings:
"Creatures are subject to changing 'states,' but the gnostic has no 'state,' because his vestiges are effaced and his essence annihilated by the essence of another, and his traces are lost in another's traces." "Thirty years the high God was my mirror, now I am my own mirror," i.e. according to the explanation given by his biographer, "that which I was I am no more, for 'I' and 'God' is a denial of the unity of God. Since I am no more, the high God is His own mirror." "I went from God to God, until they cried from me in me, 'O Thou I!'"
This, it will be observed, is not Buddhism, but the pantheism of the Vedanta. We cannot identify fana with Nirvana unconditionally. Both terms imply the passing-away of individuality, but while Nirvana is purely negative, fana is accompanied by baqa, everlasting life in God. The rapture of the Sufi who has lost himself in ecstatic contemplation of the divine beauty is entirely opposed to the passionless intellectual serenity of the Arahat.
But the fact is that the influence of Buddhism on Mohammedan thought has been exaggerated. Much is attributed to Buddhism that is Indian rather than specifically Buddhistic: the fana theory of the Sufis is a case in point. Ordinary Moslems held the followers of Buddha in abhorrence, regarding them as idolaters, and were not likely to seek personal intercourse with them. On the other hand, for nearly a thousand years before the Mohammedan conquest, Buddhism had been powerful in Bactria and Eastern Persia generally: it must, therefore, have affected the development of Sufism in these regions.
While fana in its pantheistic form is radically different from Nirvana, the terms coincide so closely in other ways that we cannot regard them as being altogether unconnected. Fana has an ethical aspect: it involves the extinction of all passions and desires. The passing-away of evil qualities and of the evil actions which they produce is said to be brought about by the continuance of the corresponding good qualities and actions. Compare this with the definition of Nirvana given by Professor Rhys Davids:
"The extinction of that sinful, grasping condition of mind and heart, which would otherwise, according to the great mystery of Karma, be the cause of renewed individual existence. That extinction is to be brought about by, and runs parallel with, the growth of the opposite condition of mind and heart; and it is complete when that opposite condition is reached."
Apart from the doctrine of Karma, which is alien to Sufism, these definitions of fana (viewed as a moral state) and Nirvana, agree almost word for word. It would be out of place to pursue the comparison further, but we may conclude that the Sufi theory of fana was influenced to some extent by Buddhism as well as by Perso-Indian pantheism.
The receptivity of Islam to foreign ideas has been recognised by every unbiassed
inquirer, and the history of Sufism is only a single instance of the general rule. But this fact should not lead us to seek in such ideas an explanation of the whole question which I am now discussing, or to identify Sufism itself with the extraneous ingredients which it absorbed and assimilated in the course of its development. Even if Islam had been miraculously shut off from contact with foreign religions and philosophies, some form of mysticism would have arisen within it, for the seeds were already there.
How, it may be asked, could a religion founded on the simple and austere monotheism of Mohammed tolerate these new doctrines, much less make terms with them? It would seem impossible to reconcile the transcendent personality of Allah with an immanent Reality which is the very life and soul of the universe. Yet Islam has accepted Sufism. The Sufis, instead of being excommunicated, are securely established in the Mohammedan church, and the Legend of the Moslem Saints records the wildest excesses of Oriental pantheism.
The holy Koran is that infallible touchstone by which every Mohammedan theory and practice must be proved. Are any germs of mysticism to be found there? The Koran, starts with the notion of Allah, the One, Eternal, and Almighty God, far above human feelings and aspirations--the Lord of His slaves, not the Father of His children; a judge meting out stern justice to sinners, and extending His mercy only to those who avert His wrath by repentance, humility, and unceasing works of devotion; a God of fear rather than of love. This is one side, and certainly the most prominent side, of Mohammed's teaching; but while he set an impassable gulf between the world and Allah, his deeper instinct craved a direct revelation from God to the soul. There are no contradictions in the logic of feeling. Mohammed, who had in him something of the mystic, felt God both as far and near, both as transcendent and immanent. In the latter aspect, Allah is the light of the heavens and the earth, a Being who works in the world and in the soul of man.
"If My servants ask thee about Me, lo, I am near" (Kor. 2.182); "We (God) are nearer to him than his own neck-vein" (50.15); "And in the earth are signs to those of real faith, and in yourselves. What! do ye not see?" (51.20-21).
It was a long time ere they saw. The Moslem consciousness, haunted by terrible visions of the wrath to come, slowly and painfully awoke to the significance of those liberating ideas.
The relation of individual Sufis to Islam varies from more or less entire conformity to a merely nominal profession of belief in Allah and His Prophet. While the Koran and the Traditions are generally acknowledged to be the unalterable standard of religious truth, this acknowledgment does not include the recognition of any external authority which shall decide what is orthodox and what is heretical. Creeds and catechisms count for nothing in the Sufi's estimation. Why should he concern himself with these when he possesses a doctrine derived immediately from God? As he reads the Koran with studious meditation and rapt attention, lo, the hidden meanings--infinite, inexhaustible--of the Holy Word flash upon his inward eye. This is what the Sufis call istinbat, a sort of intuitive deduction; the mysterious inflow of divinely revealed knowledge into hearts made pure by repentance and filled with the thought of God, and the outflow of that knowledge upon the interpreting tongue. Naturally, the doctrines elicited by means of istinbat do not agree very well either with Mohammedan theology or with each other, but the discord is easily explained. Theologians, who interpret the letter, cannot be expected to reach the same conclusions as mystics, who interpret the spirit; and if both classes differ amongst themselves, that is a merciful dispensation of divine wisdom, since theological controversy serves to extinguish religious error, while the variety of mystical truth corresponds to the manifold degrees and modes of mystical experience.
During the early Middle Ages Islam was a growing organism, and gradually became transformed under the influence of diverse movements, of which Sufism itself was one. Mohammedan orthodoxy in its present shape owes much to Ghazali, and Ghazali was a Sufi. Through his work and example the Sufistic interpretation of Islam has in no small measure been harmonised with the rival claims of reason and tradition, but just because of this he is less valuable than mystics of a purer type to the student who wishes to know what Sufism essentially is.
Although the numerous definitions of Sufism which occur in Arabic and Persian books on the subject are historically interesting, their chief importance lies in showing that Sufism is undefinable. Jalaluddin Rumi in his Masnavi tells a story about an elephant which some Hindoos were exhibiting in a dark room. Many people gathered to see it, but, as the place was too dark to permit them to see the elephant, they all felt it with their hands, to gain an idea of what it was like. One felt its trunk, and said that the animal resembled a water-pipe; another felt its ear, and said it must be a large fan; another its leg, and thought it must be a pillar; another felt its back, and declared that the beast must be like an immense throne. So it is with those who define Sufism: they can only attempt to express what they themselves have felt, and there is no conceivable formula that will comprise every shade of personal and intimate religious feeling. Since, however, these definitions illustrate with convenient brevity certain aspects and characteristics of Sufism, a few specimens may be given.
"Sufism is this: that actions should be passing over the Sufi (i.e. being done upon him) which are known to God only, and that he should always be with God in a way that is known to God only." "Sufism is wholly self-discipline." "Sufism is, to possess nothing and to be possessed by nothing." "Sufism is not a system composed of rules or sciences but a moral disposition; i.e. if it were a rule, it could be made one's own by strenuous exertion, and if it were a science, it could be acquired by instruction; but on the contrary it is a disposition, according to the saying, 'Form yourselves on the moral nature of God'; and the moral nature of God cannot be attained either by means of rules or by means of sciences." "Sufism is freedom and generosity and absence of self-constraint." "It is this: that God should make thee die to thyself and should make thee live in Him." "To behold the imperfection of the phenomenal world, nay, to close the eye to everything imperfect in contemplation of Him who is remote from all imperfection--that is Sufism." "Sufism is control of the faculties and observance of the breaths."
"It is Sufism to put away what thou hast in thy head, to give what thou hast in thy hand, and not to recoil from whatsoever befalls thee."
The reader will perceive that Sufism is a word uniting many divergent meanings, and that in sketching its main features one is obliged to make a sort of composite portrait, which does not represent any particular type exclusively. The Sufis are not a sect, they have no dogmatic system, the tariqas or paths by which they seek God "are in number as the souls of men" and vary infinitely, though a family likeness may be traced in them all. Descriptions of such a Protean phenomenon must differ widely from one another, and the impression produced in each case will depend on the choice of materials and the prominence given to this or that aspect of the many-sided whole.
THE PATH OF ILLUMINATION AND ECSTASY
MYSTICS of every race and creed have described the progress of the spiritual life as a Journey or a pilgrimage. Other symbols have been used for the same purpose, but this one appears to be almost universal in its range. The Sufi who sets out to seek God calls himself a 'traveller' (salik); he advances by slow 'stages' (maqamat) along a 'path' (tariqat) to the goal of union with Reality (fana fi ’l-Haqq). Should he venture to make a map of this interior ascent, it will not correspond exactly with any of those made by previous explorers. Such maps or scales of perfection were elaborated by Sufi teachers at an early period, and the unlucky Moslem habit of systematising has produced an enormous aftercrop. The 'path' expounded by the author of the Kitab al-Luma‘, perhaps the oldest comprehensive treatise on Sufism that we now possess, consists of the following seven 'stages', each of which (except the first member of the series) is the result of the 'stages' immediately preceding it--(l) Repentance, (2) abstinence, (3) renunciation, (4) poverty, (5) patience, (6) trust in God, (7) satisfaction. The 'stages' constitute the ascetic and ethical discipline of the Sufi, and must be carefully distinguished from the so-called 'states' (ahwal, plural of hal), which form a similar psychological chain. The above writer enumerates ten 'states'--Meditation, nearness to God, love, fear, hope, longing, intimacy, tranquillity, contemplation, and certainty. While the 'stages' can be acquired and mastered by one's own efforts, the 'states' are spiritual feelings and dispositions over which a man has no control:
"They descend from God into his heart, without his being able to repel them when they come or to retain them when they go."
The Sufi's 'path' is not finished until he has traversed all the 'stages,' making himself perfect in every one of them before advancing to the next, and has also experienced whatever 'states' it pleases God to bestow upon him. Then, and only then, is he permanently raised to the higher planes of consciousness which Sufis call 'the Gnosis' (ma‘rifat) and 'the Truth' (haqiqat), where the 'seeker' (talib) becomes the 'knower' or 'gnostic' (‘arif), and realises that knowledge, knower, and known are One.
Having sketched, as briefly as possible, the external framework of the method by which the Sufi approaches his goal, now here paint some account of its inner workings. The first place in every list of 'stages' is occupied by repentance (tawbat). This is the Moslem term for 'conversion,' and marks the beginning of a new life. In the biographies of eminent Sufis the dreams, visions, auditions, and other experiences which caused them to enter on the Path are usually related. Trivial as they may seem, these records have a psychological basis, and, if authentic, would be worth studying in detail. Repentance is described as the awakening of the soul from the slumber of heedlessness, so that the sinner becomes aware of his evil ways and feels contrition for past disobedience. He is not truly penitent, however, unless (1) he at once abandons the sin or sins of which he is conscious, and (2) firmly resolves that he will never return to these sins in the future. It he should fail to keep his vow, he must again turn to God, whose mercy is infinite. A certain well-known Sufi repented seventy times and fell back into sin seventy times before he made a lasting repentance. The convert must also, as far as lies in his power, satisfy all those whom he has injured. Many examples of such restitution might be culled from the Legend of the Moslem Saints.
According to the high mystical theory, repentance is purely an act of divine grace, coming from God to man, not from man to God. Some one said to Rabi‘a:
"I have committed many sins; if I turn in penitence towards God, will He turn in mercy towards me?" "Nay," she replied," but if He shall turn towards thee, thou wilt turn towards Him."
The question whether sins ought to be remembered after repentance or forgotten illustrates a fundamental point in Sufi ethics: the difference between what is taught to novices and disciples and what is held as an esoteric doctrine by adepts. Any Mohammedan director of souls would tell his pupils that to think humbly and remorsefully of one's sins is a sovereign remedy against spiritual pride, but he himself might very well believe that real repentance consists in forgetting everything except God.
"The penitent," says Hujwiri, "is a lover of God, and the lover of God is in contemplation of God: in contemplation it is wrong to remember sin, for recollection of sin is a veil between God and the contemplative."
Sin appertains to self-existence, which itself is the greatest of all sins. To forget sin is to forget self.
This is only one application of a principle which runs through the whole ethical system of Sufism and will be more fully explained in a subsequent chapter. Its dangers are evident, but we must in fairness allow that the same theory of conduct may not be equally suitable to those who have made themselves perfect in moral discipline and to those who are still striving after perfection.
Over the gate of repentance it is written:
"All self abandon ye who enter here!"
The convert now begins what is called by Christian mystics the Purgative Way. If he follows the general rule, he will take a director (Sheykh, Pir, Murshid), i.e. a holy man of ripe experience and profound knowledge, whose least word is absolute law to his disciples. A 'seeker' who attempts to traverse the 'Path' without assistance receives little sympathy. Of such a one it is said that 'his guide is Satan,' and he is likened to a tree that for want of the gardener's care brings forth 'none or bitter fruit.'
Speaking of the Sufi Sheykhs, Hujwiri says:
"When a novice joins them, with the purpose of renouncing the world, the subject him to spiritual discipline for the space of three years. If he fulfil the requirements of this discipline, well and good; otherwise, they declare that he cannot be admitted to the 'Path.' The first year is devoted to service of the people, the second year to service of God, and the third year to watching over his own heart. He can serve the people, only when he places himself in the rank of servants and all others in the rank of masters, i.e. he must regard all, without exception, as being better than himself, and must deem it his duty to serve all alike. And he can serve God, only when he cuts off all his selfish interests relating either to the present or to the future life, and worships God for God's sake alone, inasmuch as whoever worships God for any thing's sake worships himself, not God. And he can watch over his heart, only when his thoughts are collected and every care is dismissed, so that in communion with God he guards his heart from the assaults of heedlessness. When these qualifications are possessed by the novice, he may wear the muraqqa‘at (the patched frock worn by dervishes) as a true mystic, not merely as an imitator of others."
Shibli was a pupil of the famous theosophist Junayd of Baghdad. On his conversion, he came to Junayd, saying:
"They tell me that you possess the pearl of divine knowledge: either give it me or sell it." Junayd answered: "I cannot sell it, for you have not the price thereof; and if I give it you, you will have gained it cheaply. You do not know its value. Cast yourself headlong, like me, into this ocean, in order that you may win the pearl by waiting patiently."
Shibli asked what he must do.
"Go," said Junayd, "and sell sulphur."
At the end of a year he said to Shibli:
"This trading makes you well known. Become a dervish and occupy yourself solely with begging."
During a whole year Shibli wandered through the streets of Baghdad, begging of the passers-by, but no one heeded him. Then he returned to Junayd, who exclaimed:
"See now! You are nothing in people's eyes. Never set your mind on them or take any account of them at all. For some time" (he continued) "you were a chamberlain and acted as governor of a province. Go to that country and ask pardon of all those whom you have wronged."
Shibli obeyed and spent four years in going from door to door, until he had obtained an acquittance from every person except one, whom he failed to trace. On his return, Junayd said to him:
"You still have some regard to reputation. Go and be a beggar for one year more."
Every day Shibli used to bring the alms that were given him to Junayd, who bestowed them on the poor and kept Shibli without food until the next morning. When a year had passed in this way, Junayd accepted him as one of his disciples on condition that he should perform the duties of a servant to the others. After a year's service, Junayd asked him:
"What think you of yourself now?" Shibli replied: "I deem myself the meanest of God's creatures." " Now," said the master, "your faith is firm."
The details of this training--the fasts and vigils, the vows of silence, the long days and nights of solitary meditation, all the weapons and tactics, in short, of that battle against one's self the Prophet declared to be more painful and meritorious than the Holy War. On the other hand, it wil more apt to describe in a general way the characteristic theories and practices for which the 'Path' is a convenient designation. These may be treated under the following heads: Poverty, Mortification, Trust in God, and Recollection.
Whereas poverty is negative in nature, involving detachment from all that is worldly and unreal, the three remaining terms denote the positive counterpart of that process, namely, the ethical discipline by which the soul is brought into harmonious relations with Reality.
The fatalistic spirit which brooded darkly over the childhood of Islam--the feeling that all human actions are determined by an unseen Power, and in themselves are worthless and vain--caused renunciation to become the watchword of early Moslem asceticism. Every true believer is bound to abstain from unlawful pleasures, but the ascetic acquires merit by abstaining from those which are lawful. At first, renunciation was understood almost exclusively in a material sense. To have as few worldly goods as possible seemed the surest means of gaining salvation. Dawud al-Ta’i owned nothing except a mat of rushes, a brick which he used as a pillow, and a leathern vessel which served him for drinking and washing. A certain man dreamed that he saw Malik ibn Dinar and Mohammed ibn Wasi‘ being led into Paradise, and that Malik was admitted before his companion. He cried out in astonishment, for he thought Mohammed ibn Wasi‘ had a superior claim to the honour. "Yes," came the answer, "but Mohammed ibn Wasi‘ possessed two shirts, and Malik only one. That is the reason why Malik is preferred."
The Sufi ideal of poverty goes far beyond this. True poverty is not merely lack of wealth, but lack of desire for wealth: the empty heart as well as the empty hand. The 'poor man' (faqir) and the 'mendicant' (dervish) are names by which the Mohammedan mystic is proud to be known, because they imply that he is stripped of every thought or wish that would divert his mind from God. "To be severed entirely from both the present life and the future life, and to want nothing besides the Lord of the present life and the future life-¬that is to be truly poor." Such a faqir is denuded of individual existence, so that he does not attribute to himself any action, feeling, or quality. He may even be rich, in the common meaning of the word, though spiritually he is the poorest of the poor; for, sometimes, God endows His saints with an outward show of wealth and worldliness in order to hide them from the profane.
Poverty is only the beginning of Sufism. Faqirs, Jami says, renounce all worldly things for the sake of pleasing God. They are urged to this sacrifice by one of three motives: (a) Hope of an easy reckoning on the Day of Judgment, or fear of being punished; (b) desire of Paradise; (c) longing for spiritual peace and inward composure. Thus, inasmuch as they are not disinterested but seek to benefit themselves, they rank below the Sufi, who has no will of his own and depends absolutely on the will of God. It is the absence of 'self' that distinguishes the Sufi from the faqir.
Here are some maxims for dervishes:
"Do not beg unless you are starving. The Caliph Omar flogged a man who begged after having satisfied his hunger. When compelled to beg, do not accept more than you need."
• "Be good-natured and uncomplaining and thank God for your poverty."
• "Do not flatter the rich for giving, nor blame them for withholding."
• "Dread the loss of poverty more than the rich man dreads the loss of wealth."
• "Take what is voluntarily offered: it is the daily bread which God sends to you: do not refuse God's gift."
• "Let no thought of the morrow enter your mind, else you will incur everlasting perdition." "Do not make God a springe to catch alms."
The Sufi teachers gradually built up a system of asceticism and moral culture which is founded on the fact that there is in man an element of evil--the lower or appetitive soul. This evil self, the seat of passion and lust, is called nafs; it may be considered broadly equivalent to 'the flesh,' and with its allies, the world and the devil, it constitutes the great obstacle to the attainment of union with God.
The Prophet said:
"Thy worst enemy is thy nafs, which is between thy two sides." I do not intend to discuss the various opinions as to its nature, but the proof of its materiality is too curious to be omitted. Mohammed ibn ‘Ulyan, an eminent Sufi, relates that one day something like a young fox came forth from his throat, and God caused him to know that it was his nafs. He trod on it, but it grew bigger at every kick that he gave it.
He said:
"Other things are destroyed by pain and blows: why dost thou increase?" " Because I was created perverse," it replied; "what is pain to other things is pleasure to me, and their pleasure is my pain."
The nafs of Hallaj was seen running behind him in the shape of a dog; and other cases are recorded in which it appeared as a snake or a mouse.
Mortification of the nafs is the chief work of devotion, and leads, directly or indirectly, to the contemplative life. All the Sheykhs are agreed that no disciple who neglects this duty will ever learn the rudiments of Sufism. The principle of mortification is that the nafs should be weaned from those things to which it is accustomed, that it should be encouraged to resist its passions, that its pride should be broken, and that it should be brought through suffering and tribulation to recognise the vileness of its original nature and the impurity of its actions.
Concerning the outward methods of mortification, such as fasting, silence, and solitude, a great deal might be written, but we must now pass on to the higher ethical discipline which completes the Path.
Self-mortification, as advanced Sufis understand it, is a moral transmutation of the inner man. When they say, "Die before ye die," they do not mean to assert that the lower self can be essentially destroyed, but that it can and should be purged of its attributes, which are wholly evil. These attributes--ignorance, pride, envy, uncharitableness, etc.--are extinguished, and replaced by the opposite qualities, when the will is surrendered to God and when the mind is concentrated on Him. Therefore 'dying to self' is really 'living in God.' The mystical aspects of the doctrine thus stated will occupy a considerable part of the following chapters; here we are mainly interested in its ethical import.
The Sufi who has eradicated self-will is said, in technical language, to have reached the 'stages' of 'acquiescence' or 'satisfaction' (rida) and 'trust in God' (tawakkul).
A dervish fell into the Tigris. Seeing that he could not swim, a man on the bank cried out, "Shall I tell some one to bring you ashore?" "No," said the dervish. "Then do you wish to be drowned?" "No." "What, then, do you wish?" The dervish replied, "God's will be done! What have I to do with wishing?"
'Trust in God,' in its extreme form, involves the renunciation of every personal initiative and volition; total passivity like that of a corpse in the hands of the washer who prepares it for burial; perfect indifference towards anything that is even remotely connected with one's self. A special class of the ancient Sufis took their name from this 'trust,' which they applied, so far as they were able, to matters of everyday life. For instance, they would not seek food, work for hire, practise any trade, or allow medicine to be given them when they were ill. Quietly they committed themselves to God's care, never doubting that He, to whom belong the treasures of earth and heaven, would provide for their wants, and that their allotted portion would come to them as surely as it comes to the birds, which neither sow nor reap, and to the fish in the sea, and to the child in the womb.
These principles depend ultimately on the Sufistic theory of the divine unity, as is shown by Shaqiq of Balkh in the following passage:
"There are three things which a man is bound to practise. Whosoever neglects any one of them must needs neglect them all, and whosoever cleaves to any one of them must needs cleave to them all. Strive, therefore, to understand, and consider heedfully,
"The first is this, that with your mind and your tongue and your actions you declare God to be One; and that, “having declared Him to be One, and having declared that none benefits you or harms you except Him, you devote all your actions to Him alone. If you act a single jot of your actions for the sake of another, your thought and speech are corrupt, since your motive in acting for another's sake must be hope or fear; and when you act from hope or fear of other than God, who is the lord and sustainer of all things, you have taken to yourself another god to honour and venerate.
"Secondly, that while you speak and act in the sincere belief that there is no God except Him, you should trust Him more than the world or money or uncle or father or mother or any one on the face of the earth.
"Thirdly, when you have established these two things, namely, sincere belief in the unity of God and trust in Him, it behoves you to be satisfied with Him and not to be angry on account of anything that vexes you. Beware of anger! Let your heart be with Him always, let it not be withdrawn from Him for a single moment."
The 'trusting' Sufi has no thought beyond the present hour. On one occasion Shaqiq asked those who sat listening to his discourse:
"If God causes you to die to-day, think ye that He will demand from you the prayers of to-morrow?" They answered: "No; how should He demand from us the prayers of a day on which we are not alive?" Shaqiq said: "Even as He will not demand from you the prayers of to-morrow, so do ye not seek from Him the provender of to-morrow. It may be that ye will not live so long."
In view of the practical consequences of attempting to live 'on trust,' it is not surprising to read the advice given to those who would perfectly fulfil the doctrine: "Let them dig a grave and bury themselves." Later Sufis hold that active exertion for the purpose of obtaining the means of subsistence is quite compatible with 'trust,' according to the saying of the Prophet, "Trust in God and tie the camel's leg." They define tawakkul as an habitual state of mind, which is impaired only by self-pleasing thoughts; e.g. it was accounted a breach of 'trust' to think Paradise a more desirable place than Hell.
The highest morality springs from nothing but love, when self-surrender becomes self-devotion. Among the positive elements in the Sufi discipline there is one that Moslem mystics unanimously regard as the keystone of practical religion. It is referred as the dhikr, an exercise well known to Western readers from the careful description given by Edward Lane in his Modern Egyptians, and later by Professor D. B. Macdonald in his Aspects of Islam. The term dhikr--'recollection' seems to be the most appropriate equivalent in English--signifies 'mentioning,' 'remembering,' or simply 'thinking of'; in the Koran the Faithful are commanded to "remember God often," a plain act of worship without any mystical savour. But the Sufis made a practice of repeating the name of God or some religious formula, e.g. "Glory to Allah" (subhan Allah), "There is no god but Allah" (la ilaha illa ’llah), accompanying the mechanical intonation with an intense concentration of every faculty upon the single word or phrase; and they attach greater value to this irregular litany, which enables them to enjoy uninterrupted communion with God, than to the five services of prayer performed, at fixed hours of the day and night, by all Moslems.
Recollection may be either spoken or silent, but it is best, according to the usual opinion, that tongue and mind should co-operate. Sahl ibn ‘Abdallah bade one of his disciples endeavour to say "Allah! Allah!" the whole day without intermission. When he had acquired the habit of doing so, Sahl instructed him to repeat the same words during the night, until they came forth from his lips even while he was asleep. "Now," said he, "be silent and occupy yourself with recollecting them." At last the disciple's whole being was absorbed by the thought of Allah. One day a log fell on his head, and the words "Allah, Allah" were seen written in the blood that trickled from the wound.
Ghazali describes the method and effects of dhikr in a passage which Macdonald has summarised as follows:
"Let him reduce his heart to a state in which the existence of anything and its non-existence are the same to him. Then let him sit alone in some corner, limiting his religious duties to what is absolutely necessary, and not occupying himself either with reciting the Koran or considering its meaning or with books of religious traditions or with anything of the sort. And let him see to it that nothing save God most High enters his mind. Then, as he sits in solitude, let him not cease saying continuously with his tongue, 'Allah, Allah,' keeping his thought on it. At last he will reach a state when the motion of his tongue will cease, and it will seem as though the word flowed from it. Let him persevere in this until all trace of motion is removed from his tongue, and he finds his heart persevering in the thought. Let him still persevere until the form of the word, its letters and shape, is removed from his heart, and there remains the idea alone, as though clinging to his heart, inseparable from it. So far, all is dependent on his will and choice; but to bring the mercy of God does not stand in his will or choice. He has now laid himself bare to the breathings of that mercy, and nothing remains but to await what God will open to him, as God has done after this manner to prophets and saints. If he fo11ows the above course, he may be sure that the light of the Real will shine out in his heart. At first unstable, like a flash of lightning, it turns and returns; though sometimes it hangs back. And if it returns, sometimes it abides and sometimes it is momentary. And if it abides, sometimes its abiding is long, and sometimes short."
Another Sufi puts the gist of the matter in a sentence, thus:
"The first stage of dhikr is to forget self, and the last stage is the effacement of the worshipper in the act of worship, without consciousness of worship, and such absorption in the object of worship as precludes return to the subject thereof."
Recollection can be aided in various ways. When Shibli was a novice, he went daily into a cellar, taking with him a bundle of sticks. If his attention flagged, he would beat himself until the sticks broke, and sometimes the whole bundle would be finished before evening; then he would dash his hands and feet against the wall. The Indian practice of inhaling and exhaling the breath was known to the Sufis of the ninth century and was much used afterwards. Among the Dervish Orders music, singing, and dancing are favourite means of inducing the state of trance called 'passing-away' (fana), which, as appears from the definition quoted above, is the climax and raison d'être of the method.
In 'meditation' (muraqabat) we recognise a form of self-concentration similar to the Buddhistic dhyana and samadhi. This is what the Prophet meant when he said, "Worship God as though thou sawest Him, for if thou seest Him not, yet He sees thee." Anyone who feels sure that God is always watching over him will devote himself to meditating on God, and no evil thoughts or diabolic suggestions will find their way into his heart. Nuri used to meditate so intently that not a hair on his body stirred. He declared that he had learned this habit from a cat which was observing a mouse-hole, and that she was far more quiet than he. Abu Sa‘id ibn Abi ’l-Khayr kept his eyes fixed on his navel. It is said that the Devil is smitten with epilepsy when he approaches a man thus occupied, just as happens to other men when the Devil takes possession of them.
These are the main lines on which the preparatory training of the Sufi is conducted. This may be deemed sign enough to have been invested by his Sheykh with the patched frock (muraqqa‘at or khirqat), which is an outward sign that he has successfully emerged from the discipline of the 'Path,' and is now advancing with uncertain steps towards the Light, as when toil-worn travellers, having gained the summit of a deep gorge, suddenly catch glimpses of the sun and cover their eyes with ILLUMINATION AND ECSTASY.
Editor’s Note:
For the present incarnation of
MYSTICISM: THE PATH OF ILLUMINATION AND ECSTASY
I have richly drawn on
THE MYSTICS OF ISLAM
by Reynold A. Nicholson
Routledge, Kegan Paul, London[1914]
---yayati
Sunday, January 11, 2009
UNDERSTANDING ZEN
What is Zen? (the simple question)
Zen is short for Zen Buddhism. It is sometimes called a religion and sometimes called a philosophy. Choose whichever term you prefer; it simply doesn't matter.
Historically, Zen Buddhism originates in the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama. Around 500 B.C. he was a prince in what is now India. At the age of 29, deeply troubled by the suffering he saw around him, he renounced his privileged life to seek understanding. After 6 years of struggling as an ascetic he finally achieved Enlightenment at age 35. After this he was known as the Buddha (meaning roughly "one who is awake"). In a nutshell, he realized that everything is subject to change and that suffering and discontentment are the result of attachment to circumstances and things which, by their nature, are impermanent. By ridding oneself of these attachments, including attachment to the false notion of self or "I", one can be free of suffering.
The teachings of the Buddha have, to this day, been passed down from teacher to student. Around 475 A.D. one of these teachers, Bodhidharma, traveled from India to China and introduced the teachings of the Buddha there. In China Buddhism mingled with Taoism. The result of this mingling was the Ch'an School of Buddhism. Around 1200 A.D. Ch'an Buddhism spread from China to Japan where it is called (at least in translation) Zen Buddhism.
What is Zen? (the real question)
This question basically asks "What is the essence of Zen?". It appears in various guises throughout Zen literature, from "What is the meaning of Bodhidharma's coming from the West?" to "Have you eaten yet?". The question cuts right to the heart of the matter and can only be answered by you. Perhaps the best answer is "practice".
Why do people post such nonsense to this group?One of the central points of Zen is intuitive understanding. As a result, words and sentences have no fixed meaning, and logic is often irrelevant. Words have meaning only in relation to who is using them, who they are talking to, and what situation they are used in. Some postings are indeed nonsense; other postings appear to be nonsense at first but this is because the meaning is all between the lines. Zen and poetry have gone hand in hand for centuries.
Instructions For The Practice Of Zazen (Sitting Meditation)
This zazen FAQ is based (with modification) on the publication Shikantaza: An Introduction to Zazen published by the Kyoto Soto-Zen Center. Some sectarian differences are noted under Difficulties and Expedients. The main text is minimalist in aiming to present what is most common in as many teaching lines as practicable.
Terms for zazen portion of FAQ (see also glossary)
Gassho (Korean: hapchang): See under Hand Positions.
Hokkaijoin (Cosmic Mudra): See under Hand Positions.
Hondo: A formal hall for rituals and ceremonies. The altar is against a wall in a hondo.
Isshu: See under Hand Positions.
Kinhin: Walking zazen.
Rinzai: A Japanese (Chinese: Linji) sect of Zen Buddhism.
Shashu: See under Hand Positions.
Sodo: A formal hall for meditation, meals, and sleeping. The altar is in the center of a sodo.
Soto: A Japanese (Chinese: Caodong) sect of Zen Buddhism.
Zafu: A small round cushion used as a seat in zazen.
Zabuton: See Zaniku.
Zaniku: A large reactangular flat cushion placed under the zafu which cushions the knees.
Zendo: An informal hall for zazen is practice, which may combine the function and layout of a sodo and hondo.
Zendo Manners
In a zendo the altar is placed in either the sodo or hondo position.
Enter the zendo on the left side of the entry, left foot first.
Gassho and bow to the altar.
Walk forward across the room past the altar and go to a seat turning corners squarely (cross in front of the altar only during kinhin).
Gassho and bow toward the seat, greeting the people to both sides.
The people on both sides respond to greeting.
Turn clockwise and face front.
Gassho and bow to those directly across room, greeting them.
They respond with a gassho-bow in greeting.
Sit down on the zafu.
Turn clockwise toward the wall. (If in a Soto style zendo, Rinzai style is to sit facing in from the wall.)
Always turn or move clockwise as viewed from above the zendo.
Hand PositionsGassho is performed by placing the hands palm to palm slightly in front of the chest with the arms parallel to the floor.
Shashu is performed by placing the thumbtip of the left hand as close to the left palm as comfortable and making a fist around it. Place the fist in the center of the chest and cover it with the right hand. Keep the elbows away from the body with the forearms parallel to the floor.
Isshu is the same as shashu but with the left fist turned thumb side toward the chest. Left fist and thumb are parallel to the floor and not vertical as in shashu.
Hokkaijoin (Cosmic Mudra) is performed in the following manner. Place your right hand palm upward in your lap against the lower abdomen. Place the left hand palm upward on top of the right. The second joints of the middle fingers should be touching, and your fingers parallel. Raise the thumbs up opposite the fingers and touch the thumb tips lightly together; forming an oval between the thumbs and fingers. The thumb tips should join at the approximate level of the navel. In some Tibetan teaching lines the right hand is placed on top of the left.
Settling Into the Posture
Place a thick mat (zaniku or zabuton) in front of the wall and place a small round cushion (zafu) on it. Sit on it facing the wall. There are several positions for the legs. If not too cold sit with bare feet. Leave your wristwatch off.
The cross legged positions provide greatest stability. To sit in full lotus, place the right foot on the left thigh and then the left foot on the right thigh. To sit in half lotus place your left foot on your right thigh. Try to cross the legs firmly so that a stable tripod of support is provided by the knees and the base of the spine. The order of the crossing of the legs may be reversed. It is also possible to simply sit on the floor with one foreleg in front of the other or kneeling using a bench or a cushion. To sit in a chair, place the feet flat on the floor and use a cushion to elevate the seat so that the upper thighs fall away from the body and follow the rest of the applicable instructions.
Rest the knees firmly on the zaniku, straighten the lower back, push the buttocks outward and the hips forward, and straighten your spine. Pull in your chin and extend the neck as though to support the ceiling. The ears and shoulders should be in the same plane with the nose directly above the navel. Straighten the back and relax shoulders, back, and abdomen without changing posture.
Keep the mouth closed placing the tongue with the tip just behind the front teeth and the rest of the tongue as close to the roof of the mouth as comfortable. Keep the eyes at least slightly open cast downward at a 45 degree angle without focusing on anything. If closed you may slip into drowsiness or daydreaming.
Rest the hands palm up on the knees and take 2 or 3 deep abdominal breaths. Exhale smoothly and slowly with the mouth slightly open by pulling in on the abdominal wall until all air has been expelled and inhale by closing the mouth and breathing naturally. Hands still on the knees sway the upper half of the body left to right a few times without moving the hips. Sway forward and back. These swayings are at first larger and then smaller enabling you to find the point of balance of your posture.
Finally, place your hands in Hokkaijoin (Cosmic Mudra, the oval shape against your abdomen described above under Hand Positions).
Breath
Observe breathing during zazen, but do not try to manipulate the rhythm or depth of the breath. Breathe gently and silently through the nose without attempting to control or manipulate the breathing. Let the breath come and go naturally so that you forget all about it. Simply let long breaths be long and short ones short. On inhalation the abdomen expands naturally like a ballon inflating, while on exhalation simply let it deflate.
There are some additional remarks about breathing under Difficulties And Expedients.
In some Rinzai and Tibetan teaching lines it is recommended that one feel a sense of strength in the abdomen in breathing, that the exhala- tion be done in a very slow smooth and gradual way or a very slight contraction of the anus on exhalation (this should be so slight it may be more felt as an intention than as a physical contraction) be per- formed. While these recommendations have their origin in energy yogas (Kundalini and Qigong) some Tibetan and Rinzai teachers recommend their use. Theravada and Soto teachers in general do not recommend this approach. Soto especially emphasizes just observing the breath as it is without trying to improve it in any way. Specifically, Dogen states that counting the breath and following it are not quite zazen and recommends avoiding their use. Some lineages (mostly Rinzai) recommend a long period of breath counting before simply practicing zazen, others (mostly Soto) do not. Similarly, some recommend that if you are without a teacher, only practice breath counting not zazen, others encourage practice with or without a teacher.
Awareness
Do not concentrate on any particular object or attempt to control thoughts, emotions, or any modification of consciousness. By simply maintaining proper posture and breathing the mind settles by itself without fabrication. When thoughts, feelings, etc. arise, do not get caught up by them or fight them. Simply permit any object of mind to come and go freely. The essential point is to always strive to wake up from distraction (thoughts, emotions, images, etc.) or dullness and drowsiness. Letting go of any thought is itself thinking non thinking.
Arising From ZazenBow in gassho. Place hands on the knees and sway the body slightly and then more so. Take a few deep breaths and unfold the legs. Arise slowly especially if the legs are asleep and do not stand abruptly. Return your sitting place to its original condition. (Plump up the zafu and brush it off with your hand.)
Kinhin
Walking ZazenPlace the hands in shashu (or isshu). Walk clockwise around the room so that your right shoulder is toward the altar in the center of the zendo. The posture from waist up is the same as in zazen. Walk taking a half step for each full breath, slowly, smoothly, and noiselessly, without dragging the feet. Always walk straight ahead and turn to the right. Rinzai kinhin is often much faster and the pace may vary. Match your pace to that of the group.
Difficulties and Expedients
The art of right awareness may seem difficult and the description given above is idealized. If you are finding difficulties invent your own way. In zazen we each must find our own way. If you find you are struggling and need a suggestion as to what to do, it is possible to follow or count the breath among other things.
Counting the breath may be done on inhalations, exhalations or both depending on what you find useful. Count from one to ten and then simply start over again at one. Be aware of the count and the breath and try to maintain continuous awareness of both. If you find that you are constantly losing the count, try counting to five.
Following the breath is done by watching the rise with inhalation and fall with exhalation of the abdomen with each breath. The abdominal wall is viewed as a leaf slowly waving in response to the in and out breaths. Maintain awareness of the entire posture as much as possible and watch the breath reach and leave the lower abdomen.
Please note that opposite breathing (abdomen in on exhalation, out on inhalation) is a Taoist Qigong (energy yoga) method and is not appropriate to do with zazen since it has a specific, health related purpose.
Keizan Zenji recommends settling awareness in the abdomen if bothered by distracting thoughts and above the eyebrows or at the hairline if bothered by drowsiness. Others recommend watching contact of the air with the nostrils or upper lip if drowsy. Dogen Zenji mentions only the palm of the left hand as a point of concentration in difficulties. Hakuin Zenji also mentions slowly scanning the attention from the top of the head downward throughout the body, like following a slowly melting substance as a specific remedy against excess nervousness in zazen. These are mentioned here only as examples of the expedient devices that have been adopted by others. Remember these are only for use in difficulty, the norm of awareness for zazen is to be awake without preference to everything in the universe regardless of whether it is inside or outside the body. Be awake to everything over and over again, that is the essential art of zazen.
Glossary, some terms related to Zen Buddhism briefly defined
Unless otherwise noted or obvious the Japanese form is given first.
The Pinyin romanization of Chinese will be used.
Ch = Chinese, J = Japanese, K = Korean, P = Pali, Skt = Sanskrit Ango (J):
A period of practice and training typically 1-3 months long.Arhat (Skt): One free from the ten fetters to freedom. Used both to criticise an individual who practices only for self benefit and to praise an accomplished adept. In the latter sense, one of the Ten Names of a Buddha.Avidya (Skt, P: Avijja): Ignorance although unawareness and unconsciousness are also good translations. Most simply it is manifested as attachment to greed, anger, and delusion.Bodhisattva (Skt): A Buddha to be who may be delaying his/her own enlightenment to continue a practice benefiting all beings. As praise, it is for selfless practice, as criticism for insufficient attention for one's own practice.Buddha (Skt): an enlightened one.
Gassho (K: hapchang): A hand position in which palms are placed together vertically in front of the body. (See Hand Positions in zazen FAQ.)
Hokkaijoin: Cosmic Mudra the oval hand position used in zazen.
Hondo: A formal hall for rituals and ceremonies. The altar is against a wall in a hondo.
Isshu: Similar to shashu but with a horizontal fist. (See Hand Positions in zazen FAQ.)
Karma (Skt; Kamma P): Literally deed or phenomenon. Also short for the law of karma, or cause and effect. Actions have foreseeable and unforeseeable consequences.
Kensho: An experience of seeing into one's own nature.Kinhin: Walking zazen usually practiced between sittings but may also be practiced on its own.
Koan (Ch: kungan): Literally, a 'public record' pointing to realization in a Zen teaching context, usually involving interaction. Short Example: A monk asked Joshu, 'Does a dog have Buddha nature?'Joshu replied, 'Mu.' (literally: without or lacking)Koans may be used discursively or as objects of meditation.
Nirvana (Skt, P: Nibbana, J: Nehan): An aspect of the world expressed as oneness, stillness, and exhaustion of desires.
Rinzai: A Japanese (Ch: Linji) sect of Zen Buddhism.Samsara (Skt & P): An aspect of world expressed as differentiation, change, becoming, impermanence and desires.
Satori: An experience of enlightenmentSesshin: Literally to inspect the heart-mind, a period of intense practice, typically approximately a week.
Shashu: A hand position with the left fist vertically against the chest and covered with the right. (See Hand Positions in zazen FAQ .)
Sodo: A formal hall for meditation, meals, and sleeping. The altar is in the center of a sodo.
Soto: A Japanese (Ch: Caodong) sect of Zen Buddhism.
Sutra (Skt; P: Sutta): The teaching discourses of the Buddhist canon, most are presented as the words of the historic Buddha.
Tathata (Skt): Thusness, the as-it-is-ness of the world.
Tathagatha (Skt): The thus-come-thus-gone one, an epithet of the Buddha.
Ten Fetters (Skt: Samyojanas): Illusion of an ego, skepticism, belief in magic as solving the problem of life, sensory delusion, ill-will, desire for formed existence, desire for formless existence, arrogance, restlessness, and ignorance of the true nature of reality.
Wato (K: Hwadu, Ch: Huatou): The head word of a koan, as in the example under Koan 'Mu'.
Yongmaeng Chongjin (K): Intensive retreat (more literally, "fearless practice").
Zafu: A small round cushion used as a seat in zazen.
Zabuton: See Zaniku.Zaniku: A large rectangular flat cushion placed under the zafu which cushions the knees.
Zazen (Ch: Zuochan): Sitting meditation.
Zen (K: Son; Ch: Chan; Skt: Dhyana; P: Jhana): Meditation.
Zendo (K: Sonbang): An informal hall for zazen is practice, which may combine the function and layout of a sodo and hondo.
On The Use Of Words
"Bodhisattavas never engage in conversations whose resolutions depend on words and logic." These words, attributed to Shakyamuni Buddha 2,500 years ago, embody the attitude Zen has towards the use of words. Truth and Meaning have existence beyond and independent of words. Words may or may not contain truth. Ultimately the awakening to our fundamental enlightened mind, is beyond descriptions possible in words. Words are convienient tools or sounds limited by the both the nature of sound itself, and the minds of both speaker and listener.
Ever try explaining how a certain food tastes to someone who's never tasted that particular food before? When you were finished did you think they really knew the taste? Could they honestly, just from your description, say they've tasted it?
No they couldn't. But you could, through the use of language, build motivation in the person to taste the food for themselves (at which point they they'd probably be more than happy to tell you how your description was lacking!)
In that exact same way, Zen Masters use words only to coax, prod, push, or drag a person to enlightenment, both as an experience and a way of life. Zen has little use for words which don't precipitate or point to, Awakening. Even logic must take a far, far, second place to the all important task of a personal realization of the unborn, undying, pure wisdom source which is the birthright of every human.
For more specific and philosophical discussion on the use of words refer to the Surangama and Lankavatara Sutras. You can find both these sutras in "A Buddhist Bible" (the first book on the reading list).
Introductory Reading List
The following short list of books is meant to help the beginner gain, not only a philosophical understanding of Zen, but also, at least, an intellectual understanding of why the practice of Zazen is the primary practice of Zen. There are many other good books available, so many that space on this FAQ does not permit anything close to a comprehensive list. Instead we give this short list which covers most fundamental aspects of Zen, Zen practice, and Zen Buddhism. Most of the writers in this list have written more than one book, so if you like your first taste of a particular author, you are encouraged to pick up other titles by the same author. There are also many other wonderful writers and books on this subject, this list is introductory only. You are encouraged to use your intuition when selecting material to read (or not).
May these books be the starting point of your own path to Awakening.
Two Books On Buddhism
A Buddhist Bible Edited by Dwight Goddard:
This is the classic work which began many of the beatnik Zen practioners of the sixties (including Jack Kerouac) on the path. There are certain books which are considered gateway books, that is to say, books that introduce whole generations of people to Zen and this is one of them. Even if you would like to practice Zen without being a Buddhist, it is important to understand the practical and philosohical ties between the two. This book serves this purpose well, while keeping a Zen slant. In addition to the two sutras mentioned earlier, this book also has translations of the Diamond Sutra, Dao De King (more popularly known as Tao Te Ching), the Platform Sutra of the Sixth Zen Patriarch (See NOTE) the Awakening of Faith Shastra, solid fundemantal discusions of the historical Buddha and his teachings. The latest reprint has a foreward by Aitken Roshi.
NOTE: This particualar translation of the Sixth Patriarch's Platform Sutra is worded in a way which might be easier understood by reading other translations.
Buddhism; A Way of Thought and Life By Nancy Ross Wilson.
A simple, clear, accurate overview of the Buddha's teachings, with chapters specifically on Tibetan Buddhism, and Zen Buddhism.
Nine Books On Zen
The Three Pillars of Zen By Roshi Phillip Kapleau:
Another gateway book. This book covers Zazen practice, common questions and problems, and the enlightnment experience. Written by an American who studied in Japan for 15 years, this is classic work by a modern western master.
Zen Mind, Beginners Mind By Shunryu Suzuki:
This book covers Zen practice with especially good comments on bringing practice from the sitting experience into each minute of our lives. It is written in simple style which still manages to convey the deeper meanings of Zen and its practice.
Questions to a Zen Master By Taisen Deshimaru:
Except for the excellent chapter on Zazen (Soto style) this book shows many basic religious and philosphical implications of Zen. With a heavy taste of the "just sitting" Soto Zen style, Master Deshimaru covers frontiers of the mind in an easy reading style that maintains the integrity of Truth.
Every Day Zen By Charlotte Joko Beck:
Another American Master, Beck, speaks in a way easily understandble to the western mind, with especially good advice on sitting practice and relations between people, along with some insightful comments on how Zen history means.
Dropping Ashes on the Buddha By Sueng Sahn:
This book by the Korean Master is written in a question and answer style. It covers main points on practice, finding a teacher (and why you should bother), and basic koan practice. Also shows excellent exchanges between master and student.
Taking the Path By Robert Aitken.
Written in a no nonsense western style, this book is another gateway book. Aitken Roshi has knack for making esoteric or difficult concepts, easier for those unfamiliar with Zen or those whose practice is just starting. Aitken Roshi is an American master who heads the Diamond Sangha in Hawaii.
The Miracle of Mindfulness By Thich Nhat Hahn.
This Vietnamese Zen Master has had intimate contact with the west since the 60's when he campaigned for peace during the war (in spite of opposition from both U.S. and North Vietnamese, Governments). His life has been exemplary and his skill as an essayist is only rivaled by his ability to bring Zen intimately into our daily lives.
About this FAQ (editors note)
This FAQ is a compilation of efforts by some denizens of alt.zen. It is intended to provide what a FAQ might be expected to provide, some answers to frequently asked questions. To my knowledge none of the contributors to this FAQ (especially not its editor) are Zen masters or even particular authorities on Zen. Perhaps the best way to view this FAQ is by seeing it as "what Zen has done to some other folks."
The present incarnation of this FAQ has no credits (although some of the contributors have taken to making sly references to each others work). This gives me the freedom to make editorial changes (usually minor) without going through the tedium of approvals. It also saves us all the effect of an imagined alt.zen hierarchy of some sort. I can only hope and beg that no one attaches any sense of authority to me because of it. (I may be forced to start making puerile jokes if this happens!)
Finally, the items in this FAQ are here because I decided they should be. I wouldn't have posted it otherwise. By even choosing what to include I am biasing this FAQ. It is my hope that this bias will not be great. The problem of life and death is already great enough.
-Daryl
Frequently Asked Questions about ZEN from alt.zen
http://www.ibiblio.org/zen/faq.html#1#1
Zen is short for Zen Buddhism. It is sometimes called a religion and sometimes called a philosophy. Choose whichever term you prefer; it simply doesn't matter.
Historically, Zen Buddhism originates in the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama. Around 500 B.C. he was a prince in what is now India. At the age of 29, deeply troubled by the suffering he saw around him, he renounced his privileged life to seek understanding. After 6 years of struggling as an ascetic he finally achieved Enlightenment at age 35. After this he was known as the Buddha (meaning roughly "one who is awake"). In a nutshell, he realized that everything is subject to change and that suffering and discontentment are the result of attachment to circumstances and things which, by their nature, are impermanent. By ridding oneself of these attachments, including attachment to the false notion of self or "I", one can be free of suffering.
The teachings of the Buddha have, to this day, been passed down from teacher to student. Around 475 A.D. one of these teachers, Bodhidharma, traveled from India to China and introduced the teachings of the Buddha there. In China Buddhism mingled with Taoism. The result of this mingling was the Ch'an School of Buddhism. Around 1200 A.D. Ch'an Buddhism spread from China to Japan where it is called (at least in translation) Zen Buddhism.
What is Zen? (the real question)
This question basically asks "What is the essence of Zen?". It appears in various guises throughout Zen literature, from "What is the meaning of Bodhidharma's coming from the West?" to "Have you eaten yet?". The question cuts right to the heart of the matter and can only be answered by you. Perhaps the best answer is "practice".
Why do people post such nonsense to this group?One of the central points of Zen is intuitive understanding. As a result, words and sentences have no fixed meaning, and logic is often irrelevant. Words have meaning only in relation to who is using them, who they are talking to, and what situation they are used in. Some postings are indeed nonsense; other postings appear to be nonsense at first but this is because the meaning is all between the lines. Zen and poetry have gone hand in hand for centuries.
Instructions For The Practice Of Zazen (Sitting Meditation)
This zazen FAQ is based (with modification) on the publication Shikantaza: An Introduction to Zazen published by the Kyoto Soto-Zen Center. Some sectarian differences are noted under Difficulties and Expedients. The main text is minimalist in aiming to present what is most common in as many teaching lines as practicable.
Terms for zazen portion of FAQ (see also glossary)
Gassho (Korean: hapchang): See under Hand Positions.
Hokkaijoin (Cosmic Mudra): See under Hand Positions.
Hondo: A formal hall for rituals and ceremonies. The altar is against a wall in a hondo.
Isshu: See under Hand Positions.
Kinhin: Walking zazen.
Rinzai: A Japanese (Chinese: Linji) sect of Zen Buddhism.
Shashu: See under Hand Positions.
Sodo: A formal hall for meditation, meals, and sleeping. The altar is in the center of a sodo.
Soto: A Japanese (Chinese: Caodong) sect of Zen Buddhism.
Zafu: A small round cushion used as a seat in zazen.
Zabuton: See Zaniku.
Zaniku: A large reactangular flat cushion placed under the zafu which cushions the knees.
Zendo: An informal hall for zazen is practice, which may combine the function and layout of a sodo and hondo.
Zendo Manners
In a zendo the altar is placed in either the sodo or hondo position.
Enter the zendo on the left side of the entry, left foot first.
Gassho and bow to the altar.
Walk forward across the room past the altar and go to a seat turning corners squarely (cross in front of the altar only during kinhin).
Gassho and bow toward the seat, greeting the people to both sides.
The people on both sides respond to greeting.
Turn clockwise and face front.
Gassho and bow to those directly across room, greeting them.
They respond with a gassho-bow in greeting.
Sit down on the zafu.
Turn clockwise toward the wall. (If in a Soto style zendo, Rinzai style is to sit facing in from the wall.)
Always turn or move clockwise as viewed from above the zendo.
Hand PositionsGassho is performed by placing the hands palm to palm slightly in front of the chest with the arms parallel to the floor.
Shashu is performed by placing the thumbtip of the left hand as close to the left palm as comfortable and making a fist around it. Place the fist in the center of the chest and cover it with the right hand. Keep the elbows away from the body with the forearms parallel to the floor.
Isshu is the same as shashu but with the left fist turned thumb side toward the chest. Left fist and thumb are parallel to the floor and not vertical as in shashu.
Hokkaijoin (Cosmic Mudra) is performed in the following manner. Place your right hand palm upward in your lap against the lower abdomen. Place the left hand palm upward on top of the right. The second joints of the middle fingers should be touching, and your fingers parallel. Raise the thumbs up opposite the fingers and touch the thumb tips lightly together; forming an oval between the thumbs and fingers. The thumb tips should join at the approximate level of the navel. In some Tibetan teaching lines the right hand is placed on top of the left.
Settling Into the Posture
Place a thick mat (zaniku or zabuton) in front of the wall and place a small round cushion (zafu) on it. Sit on it facing the wall. There are several positions for the legs. If not too cold sit with bare feet. Leave your wristwatch off.
The cross legged positions provide greatest stability. To sit in full lotus, place the right foot on the left thigh and then the left foot on the right thigh. To sit in half lotus place your left foot on your right thigh. Try to cross the legs firmly so that a stable tripod of support is provided by the knees and the base of the spine. The order of the crossing of the legs may be reversed. It is also possible to simply sit on the floor with one foreleg in front of the other or kneeling using a bench or a cushion. To sit in a chair, place the feet flat on the floor and use a cushion to elevate the seat so that the upper thighs fall away from the body and follow the rest of the applicable instructions.
Rest the knees firmly on the zaniku, straighten the lower back, push the buttocks outward and the hips forward, and straighten your spine. Pull in your chin and extend the neck as though to support the ceiling. The ears and shoulders should be in the same plane with the nose directly above the navel. Straighten the back and relax shoulders, back, and abdomen without changing posture.
Keep the mouth closed placing the tongue with the tip just behind the front teeth and the rest of the tongue as close to the roof of the mouth as comfortable. Keep the eyes at least slightly open cast downward at a 45 degree angle without focusing on anything. If closed you may slip into drowsiness or daydreaming.
Rest the hands palm up on the knees and take 2 or 3 deep abdominal breaths. Exhale smoothly and slowly with the mouth slightly open by pulling in on the abdominal wall until all air has been expelled and inhale by closing the mouth and breathing naturally. Hands still on the knees sway the upper half of the body left to right a few times without moving the hips. Sway forward and back. These swayings are at first larger and then smaller enabling you to find the point of balance of your posture.
Finally, place your hands in Hokkaijoin (Cosmic Mudra, the oval shape against your abdomen described above under Hand Positions).
Breath
Observe breathing during zazen, but do not try to manipulate the rhythm or depth of the breath. Breathe gently and silently through the nose without attempting to control or manipulate the breathing. Let the breath come and go naturally so that you forget all about it. Simply let long breaths be long and short ones short. On inhalation the abdomen expands naturally like a ballon inflating, while on exhalation simply let it deflate.
There are some additional remarks about breathing under Difficulties And Expedients.
In some Rinzai and Tibetan teaching lines it is recommended that one feel a sense of strength in the abdomen in breathing, that the exhala- tion be done in a very slow smooth and gradual way or a very slight contraction of the anus on exhalation (this should be so slight it may be more felt as an intention than as a physical contraction) be per- formed. While these recommendations have their origin in energy yogas (Kundalini and Qigong) some Tibetan and Rinzai teachers recommend their use. Theravada and Soto teachers in general do not recommend this approach. Soto especially emphasizes just observing the breath as it is without trying to improve it in any way. Specifically, Dogen states that counting the breath and following it are not quite zazen and recommends avoiding their use. Some lineages (mostly Rinzai) recommend a long period of breath counting before simply practicing zazen, others (mostly Soto) do not. Similarly, some recommend that if you are without a teacher, only practice breath counting not zazen, others encourage practice with or without a teacher.
Awareness
Do not concentrate on any particular object or attempt to control thoughts, emotions, or any modification of consciousness. By simply maintaining proper posture and breathing the mind settles by itself without fabrication. When thoughts, feelings, etc. arise, do not get caught up by them or fight them. Simply permit any object of mind to come and go freely. The essential point is to always strive to wake up from distraction (thoughts, emotions, images, etc.) or dullness and drowsiness. Letting go of any thought is itself thinking non thinking.
Arising From ZazenBow in gassho. Place hands on the knees and sway the body slightly and then more so. Take a few deep breaths and unfold the legs. Arise slowly especially if the legs are asleep and do not stand abruptly. Return your sitting place to its original condition. (Plump up the zafu and brush it off with your hand.)
Kinhin
Walking ZazenPlace the hands in shashu (or isshu). Walk clockwise around the room so that your right shoulder is toward the altar in the center of the zendo. The posture from waist up is the same as in zazen. Walk taking a half step for each full breath, slowly, smoothly, and noiselessly, without dragging the feet. Always walk straight ahead and turn to the right. Rinzai kinhin is often much faster and the pace may vary. Match your pace to that of the group.
Difficulties and Expedients
The art of right awareness may seem difficult and the description given above is idealized. If you are finding difficulties invent your own way. In zazen we each must find our own way. If you find you are struggling and need a suggestion as to what to do, it is possible to follow or count the breath among other things.
Counting the breath may be done on inhalations, exhalations or both depending on what you find useful. Count from one to ten and then simply start over again at one. Be aware of the count and the breath and try to maintain continuous awareness of both. If you find that you are constantly losing the count, try counting to five.
Following the breath is done by watching the rise with inhalation and fall with exhalation of the abdomen with each breath. The abdominal wall is viewed as a leaf slowly waving in response to the in and out breaths. Maintain awareness of the entire posture as much as possible and watch the breath reach and leave the lower abdomen.
Please note that opposite breathing (abdomen in on exhalation, out on inhalation) is a Taoist Qigong (energy yoga) method and is not appropriate to do with zazen since it has a specific, health related purpose.
Keizan Zenji recommends settling awareness in the abdomen if bothered by distracting thoughts and above the eyebrows or at the hairline if bothered by drowsiness. Others recommend watching contact of the air with the nostrils or upper lip if drowsy. Dogen Zenji mentions only the palm of the left hand as a point of concentration in difficulties. Hakuin Zenji also mentions slowly scanning the attention from the top of the head downward throughout the body, like following a slowly melting substance as a specific remedy against excess nervousness in zazen. These are mentioned here only as examples of the expedient devices that have been adopted by others. Remember these are only for use in difficulty, the norm of awareness for zazen is to be awake without preference to everything in the universe regardless of whether it is inside or outside the body. Be awake to everything over and over again, that is the essential art of zazen.
Glossary, some terms related to Zen Buddhism briefly defined
Unless otherwise noted or obvious the Japanese form is given first.
The Pinyin romanization of Chinese will be used.
Ch = Chinese, J = Japanese, K = Korean, P = Pali, Skt = Sanskrit Ango (J):
A period of practice and training typically 1-3 months long.Arhat (Skt): One free from the ten fetters to freedom. Used both to criticise an individual who practices only for self benefit and to praise an accomplished adept. In the latter sense, one of the Ten Names of a Buddha.Avidya (Skt, P: Avijja): Ignorance although unawareness and unconsciousness are also good translations. Most simply it is manifested as attachment to greed, anger, and delusion.Bodhisattva (Skt): A Buddha to be who may be delaying his/her own enlightenment to continue a practice benefiting all beings. As praise, it is for selfless practice, as criticism for insufficient attention for one's own practice.Buddha (Skt): an enlightened one.
Gassho (K: hapchang): A hand position in which palms are placed together vertically in front of the body. (See Hand Positions in zazen FAQ.)
Hokkaijoin: Cosmic Mudra the oval hand position used in zazen.
Hondo: A formal hall for rituals and ceremonies. The altar is against a wall in a hondo.
Isshu: Similar to shashu but with a horizontal fist. (See Hand Positions in zazen FAQ.)
Karma (Skt; Kamma P): Literally deed or phenomenon. Also short for the law of karma, or cause and effect. Actions have foreseeable and unforeseeable consequences.
Kensho: An experience of seeing into one's own nature.Kinhin: Walking zazen usually practiced between sittings but may also be practiced on its own.
Koan (Ch: kungan): Literally, a 'public record' pointing to realization in a Zen teaching context, usually involving interaction. Short Example: A monk asked Joshu, 'Does a dog have Buddha nature?'Joshu replied, 'Mu.' (literally: without or lacking)Koans may be used discursively or as objects of meditation.
Nirvana (Skt, P: Nibbana, J: Nehan): An aspect of the world expressed as oneness, stillness, and exhaustion of desires.
Rinzai: A Japanese (Ch: Linji) sect of Zen Buddhism.Samsara (Skt & P): An aspect of world expressed as differentiation, change, becoming, impermanence and desires.
Satori: An experience of enlightenmentSesshin: Literally to inspect the heart-mind, a period of intense practice, typically approximately a week.
Shashu: A hand position with the left fist vertically against the chest and covered with the right. (See Hand Positions in zazen FAQ .)
Sodo: A formal hall for meditation, meals, and sleeping. The altar is in the center of a sodo.
Soto: A Japanese (Ch: Caodong) sect of Zen Buddhism.
Sutra (Skt; P: Sutta): The teaching discourses of the Buddhist canon, most are presented as the words of the historic Buddha.
Tathata (Skt): Thusness, the as-it-is-ness of the world.
Tathagatha (Skt): The thus-come-thus-gone one, an epithet of the Buddha.
Ten Fetters (Skt: Samyojanas): Illusion of an ego, skepticism, belief in magic as solving the problem of life, sensory delusion, ill-will, desire for formed existence, desire for formless existence, arrogance, restlessness, and ignorance of the true nature of reality.
Wato (K: Hwadu, Ch: Huatou): The head word of a koan, as in the example under Koan 'Mu'.
Yongmaeng Chongjin (K): Intensive retreat (more literally, "fearless practice").
Zafu: A small round cushion used as a seat in zazen.
Zabuton: See Zaniku.Zaniku: A large rectangular flat cushion placed under the zafu which cushions the knees.
Zazen (Ch: Zuochan): Sitting meditation.
Zen (K: Son; Ch: Chan; Skt: Dhyana; P: Jhana): Meditation.
Zendo (K: Sonbang): An informal hall for zazen is practice, which may combine the function and layout of a sodo and hondo.
On The Use Of Words
"Bodhisattavas never engage in conversations whose resolutions depend on words and logic." These words, attributed to Shakyamuni Buddha 2,500 years ago, embody the attitude Zen has towards the use of words. Truth and Meaning have existence beyond and independent of words. Words may or may not contain truth. Ultimately the awakening to our fundamental enlightened mind, is beyond descriptions possible in words. Words are convienient tools or sounds limited by the both the nature of sound itself, and the minds of both speaker and listener.
Ever try explaining how a certain food tastes to someone who's never tasted that particular food before? When you were finished did you think they really knew the taste? Could they honestly, just from your description, say they've tasted it?
No they couldn't. But you could, through the use of language, build motivation in the person to taste the food for themselves (at which point they they'd probably be more than happy to tell you how your description was lacking!)
In that exact same way, Zen Masters use words only to coax, prod, push, or drag a person to enlightenment, both as an experience and a way of life. Zen has little use for words which don't precipitate or point to, Awakening. Even logic must take a far, far, second place to the all important task of a personal realization of the unborn, undying, pure wisdom source which is the birthright of every human.
For more specific and philosophical discussion on the use of words refer to the Surangama and Lankavatara Sutras. You can find both these sutras in "A Buddhist Bible" (the first book on the reading list).
Introductory Reading List
The following short list of books is meant to help the beginner gain, not only a philosophical understanding of Zen, but also, at least, an intellectual understanding of why the practice of Zazen is the primary practice of Zen. There are many other good books available, so many that space on this FAQ does not permit anything close to a comprehensive list. Instead we give this short list which covers most fundamental aspects of Zen, Zen practice, and Zen Buddhism. Most of the writers in this list have written more than one book, so if you like your first taste of a particular author, you are encouraged to pick up other titles by the same author. There are also many other wonderful writers and books on this subject, this list is introductory only. You are encouraged to use your intuition when selecting material to read (or not).
May these books be the starting point of your own path to Awakening.
Two Books On Buddhism
A Buddhist Bible Edited by Dwight Goddard:
This is the classic work which began many of the beatnik Zen practioners of the sixties (including Jack Kerouac) on the path. There are certain books which are considered gateway books, that is to say, books that introduce whole generations of people to Zen and this is one of them. Even if you would like to practice Zen without being a Buddhist, it is important to understand the practical and philosohical ties between the two. This book serves this purpose well, while keeping a Zen slant. In addition to the two sutras mentioned earlier, this book also has translations of the Diamond Sutra, Dao De King (more popularly known as Tao Te Ching), the Platform Sutra of the Sixth Zen Patriarch (See NOTE) the Awakening of Faith Shastra, solid fundemantal discusions of the historical Buddha and his teachings. The latest reprint has a foreward by Aitken Roshi.
NOTE: This particualar translation of the Sixth Patriarch's Platform Sutra is worded in a way which might be easier understood by reading other translations.
Buddhism; A Way of Thought and Life By Nancy Ross Wilson.
A simple, clear, accurate overview of the Buddha's teachings, with chapters specifically on Tibetan Buddhism, and Zen Buddhism.
Nine Books On Zen
The Three Pillars of Zen By Roshi Phillip Kapleau:
Another gateway book. This book covers Zazen practice, common questions and problems, and the enlightnment experience. Written by an American who studied in Japan for 15 years, this is classic work by a modern western master.
Zen Mind, Beginners Mind By Shunryu Suzuki:
This book covers Zen practice with especially good comments on bringing practice from the sitting experience into each minute of our lives. It is written in simple style which still manages to convey the deeper meanings of Zen and its practice.
Questions to a Zen Master By Taisen Deshimaru:
Except for the excellent chapter on Zazen (Soto style) this book shows many basic religious and philosphical implications of Zen. With a heavy taste of the "just sitting" Soto Zen style, Master Deshimaru covers frontiers of the mind in an easy reading style that maintains the integrity of Truth.
Every Day Zen By Charlotte Joko Beck:
Another American Master, Beck, speaks in a way easily understandble to the western mind, with especially good advice on sitting practice and relations between people, along with some insightful comments on how Zen history means.
Dropping Ashes on the Buddha By Sueng Sahn:
This book by the Korean Master is written in a question and answer style. It covers main points on practice, finding a teacher (and why you should bother), and basic koan practice. Also shows excellent exchanges between master and student.
Taking the Path By Robert Aitken.
Written in a no nonsense western style, this book is another gateway book. Aitken Roshi has knack for making esoteric or difficult concepts, easier for those unfamiliar with Zen or those whose practice is just starting. Aitken Roshi is an American master who heads the Diamond Sangha in Hawaii.
The Miracle of Mindfulness By Thich Nhat Hahn.
This Vietnamese Zen Master has had intimate contact with the west since the 60's when he campaigned for peace during the war (in spite of opposition from both U.S. and North Vietnamese, Governments). His life has been exemplary and his skill as an essayist is only rivaled by his ability to bring Zen intimately into our daily lives.
About this FAQ (editors note)
This FAQ is a compilation of efforts by some denizens of alt.zen. It is intended to provide what a FAQ might be expected to provide, some answers to frequently asked questions. To my knowledge none of the contributors to this FAQ (especially not its editor) are Zen masters or even particular authorities on Zen. Perhaps the best way to view this FAQ is by seeing it as "what Zen has done to some other folks."
The present incarnation of this FAQ has no credits (although some of the contributors have taken to making sly references to each others work). This gives me the freedom to make editorial changes (usually minor) without going through the tedium of approvals. It also saves us all the effect of an imagined alt.zen hierarchy of some sort. I can only hope and beg that no one attaches any sense of authority to me because of it. (I may be forced to start making puerile jokes if this happens!)
Finally, the items in this FAQ are here because I decided they should be. I wouldn't have posted it otherwise. By even choosing what to include I am biasing this FAQ. It is my hope that this bias will not be great. The problem of life and death is already great enough.
-Daryl
Frequently Asked Questions about ZEN from alt.zen
http://www.ibiblio.org/zen/faq.html#1#1
Monday, January 5, 2009
ZEN GITA--THE LIGHT OF ZEN
ZEN SUTRA
Fleeting shadows,
endless chase,
nothing lost,nothing found.
Only a plunge within
can let you drink
of the celestial fount.
Enlightenment is but a state
of awekening to one’s own self,
it simply happens.
Wake up to full consciousness
lotussed in the centre
of your existence.
No ‘I'amness’
no duality,
a sovereign.
A full-blown lotus
light all-pervading
in silence enveloped.
Deeper into your being
you behold:
lotus turn into a lamp.
No more seeking,
no more craving,
in bliss crowned.
Only in no-mind
can spring blossom,
all cravings fulfilled.
On a full-moon night
a dreamless sleep
under the Bo-tree.
Only a witness,
a Buddha
seated in pure conciousness.
Ultimate in truth,
freedom incarnate,
light of bliss.
No wait,
suddenly it comes
the light of Zen.
Fleeting shadows,
endless chase,
nothing lost,nothing found.
Only a plunge within
can let you drink
of the celestial fount.
Enlightenment is but a state
of awekening to one’s own self,
it simply happens.
Wake up to full consciousness
lotussed in the centre
of your existence.
No ‘I'amness’
no duality,
a sovereign.
A full-blown lotus
light all-pervading
in silence enveloped.
Deeper into your being
you behold:
lotus turn into a lamp.
No more seeking,
no more craving,
in bliss crowned.
Only in no-mind
can spring blossom,
all cravings fulfilled.
On a full-moon night
a dreamless sleep
under the Bo-tree.
Only a witness,
a Buddha
seated in pure conciousness.
Ultimate in truth,
freedom incarnate,
light of bliss.
No wait,
suddenly it comes
the light of Zen.
Thursday, January 1, 2009
A Merry Christmas And A Happy New Year to You all and may your days be filled with joy.
Life will be worth the living
our dreams be coming true
were the Christmas spirit guide us
All the year through !
May the dawning of this New Year 2009,
fill your heart with new hopes,
open up new horizons
and bring for you
promises of brighter tomorrows.
May you have a great New Year
fragrant with new opportunities,
bright be your days with new hopes
and your heart be happy with love!
Happy New Year!
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